英文學術論文寫作（綜述）之一

英文學術論文寫作（綜述）之一（0樓），英文學術論文寫作（綜述）之二（1樓），英文學術論文寫作（綜述）之三（2樓）；
英文論文引言的寫作技巧（3樓）
英文論文摘要的寫作技巧（4樓）
英文論文正文的寫作技巧（5樓）
英文論文的結論部分寫作要點（6樓）
英文論文的標點 (7樓)

請參考！有關畢業論文，請參考以下：
http://www.instrument.com.cn/bbs/shtml/20070521/845211/

英文學術論文寫作（綜述）

之一：
用英語寫學術論文的目的主要有兩個，一是參加國際學術會議，在會議上宣講，促進學術交流；二是在國際學術刊物上發表，使國外同行瞭解自己的研究成果，同樣也是出於學術交流的目的。不同的學科或領域、不同的刊物對論文的格式有不同的要求，但各個領域的研究論文在文體和語言特點上都有許多共性。瞭解了這些語言共性，便會起到觸類旁通的作用。

對我國青年學者或學生來說，用英語寫作的難點不是沒有寫作材料，不是不熟悉專業辭彙，也不是沒有打下良好的英語基礎。用英語寫論文難，是因為不太瞭解學術英語的語言特點。關於學術英語寫作的語言技巧，我們已在第一部分作了較詳細的介紹。此部分討論學術論文寫作的方法，包括學術論文寫作中常用的句型結構，我們都在此作較詳細介紹，以便讀者模仿練習，將寫作工作化難為易。

一般來說，一篇完整規範的學術論文由以下各部分構成：

Title(標題)

Abstract(摘要)

Keywords(關鍵字)

Table of contents(目錄)

Nomenclature(術語表)

Introduction(引言)

Method(方法)

Results(結果)

Discussion(討論)

Conclusion(結論)

Acknowledgement(致謝)

Reference(參考文獻)

Appendix(附錄)

其中Title，Abstract，Introduction，Method，Result，Discussion，Conclusion，Reference等八項內容是必不可少的(其他內容根據具體需要而定)。在這八項內容中，讀者最多的是Title，Abstract和Introduction部分，讀者會根據這些內容來決定是否閱讀全文。也就是說，一篇研究論文贏得讀者的多少，在很大程度上取決於Title，Abstract和Introduction寫得好壞。因此這三項內容將各分章詳細加以講述。

學術論文的正文一般包括Method，Result，Discussion三個部分。這三部分主要描述研究課題的具體內容、方法，研究過程中所使用的設備、儀器、條件，並如實公佈有關資料和研究結果等。Conclusion是對全文內容或有關研究課題進行的總體性討論。它具有嚴密的科學性和客觀性，反映一個研究課題的價值，同時提出以後的研究方向。

標題的寫法

論文標題是全文內容的縮影。讀者通過標題便能夠預測論文的主要內容和作者的意圖，從而決定是否閱讀全文。因此，為了使文章贏得有關領域裏眾多的讀者，論文的標題必須用最精煉的語言恰如其分地體現全文的主題和核心。本章主要探討英語學術論文標題的語言特點及寫法。

6.1 標題的長度

標題 單詞總數 名詞數 介詞數 形容詞等

1) Fire Resistant Steels for Construction: Design, Properties and Microchemistry 9 6 1 2

2) Damping Capacity of Shape Memory Alloy 6 5 1 0

3) Microelectronic Assembly and Packaging Technology: Barriers and Needs 8 5 0 3

14) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell: A Survey 6 4 0 2

5) Progress on Fuel Cell and Its Materials 7 4 1 2

6) Computer Simulation and Experimental Study on Cold Shut During Mold Filling 11 5 2 4

英語科技論文中，標題不宜過長，大多為8—12個單詞左右。表6.1和表6.2列出了一些學術論文的標題的字數及詞性統計資料。

表6.1 學術論文標題中字數及詞性統計(一)

標題 單詞總數 名詞數 介詞數 形容詞等

7) On the Fatigue Life Prediction of Spot Welded Components 9 5 2 2

8) Absorbable Implants in Finger Fractures: A Biomechanical and Comparative Study 10 4 1 4

9) Acoustics of Long Spaces: Theory and Application 7 4 l 2

10) Investigation of Air Bags Deployment Forces on Out-of-Position Occupant 7 2 0

11) Semi-Integral Abutments in Bridge Seismic Design 6 3 l 2

12) High Speed Flow Sensor and Fluid Power Systems Modelling 9 7 0 2

13 ) Surface Engineering of Polymers for Biomedical Application 7 4 2 l

14) The Design of User-Oriented Database of Material Performance Based on Client/Server Model 13 7 3 3.

15) Impingement Heat Transfer of Diesel Flames in a Rapid Compression and Expansion Machine 13 8 2 3

平均（約） 9 5.5 1.5 2

來源：中國第三屆青年學術會議論文集，材料科學與工程技術。北京：中國科學技術出版社，1998。

標 題 單詞總數 名詞數 介詞數 形容詞等

1) Use of Vitamin and Mineral Supplements by the Elderly 9 5 2 2

2) Dietary Supplement and Body Image in Female College Students 9 6 l 2

3) Knowledge of Cardiovascular Disease in University Students 7 4 2 l

4) Severe Weather and the Automobile 5 2 0 3

5) Heavy Weight Contenders：a Look at Fat 7 4 1 2

6) A1uminutn：Is It Hazardous to YourHealth? 7 3 1 3

7) The Use of Technology in Higher Education Programs: a National Survey 11 5 2 4

8) Sustaining the Discussion：Ecology in the Humanities Classroom 8 4 l 3

9) Diversity in the Future WorkForce 6 4 1 l

10) Models of Sustaining Human and Natural Development in an Urban Environment 11 3 2 6

11) Variation in Acorn Production and Chemistry of Two Oak Oak Species with respect to Topography 14 8 5 1

12) Traditional Versus Adult StudiesStudents: the College Experience 8 5 0 3

13) Solving the Food Shortage Problem in Northeast and Northwest Africa Using Hydroponically Grown Peanuts & Solarly Distilled Water 18 10 1 7

14) Impact of Cancer：Coping Process and Quality of Life 9 5 2 2

標 題 單詞總數 名詞數 介詞數 形容 詞等

15) Application of Digital Image Analysis for Helping to Define the Prognosis Of Selected Malignancies 14 6 3 5

平均(約) 9.5 5 1.5 3

來源：The Ohio Journal of Science Vol. 96(2)

表6.1中列出的是中國科協第三屆青年學術年會論文集中15篇英文論文的標題，平均9個單詞。表6.2列出的是從The Ohio Journal of Science中隨機挑出的15篇論文的標題，平均9．5個單詞。要想用有限的字數概括全文的主旨，用詞必須仔細斟酌和推敲，選擇最簡練、最準確、最貼切的詞來表達全文的主要內容。

6.2 標題的用詞

從表6.1和表6.2可以看出，標題中用得最多的是名詞(包括動名詞)，平均占總單詞數的50％～60％之高。其中有的標題中80％以上的詞為名詞。除名詞外，用得較多的是介詞，有時使用形容詞、冠詞、連詞、副詞。

標題是對全文重要內容的高度概括，因此用詞要貼切、中肯，不能有任何隨意性。為了便於檢索，標題中所用的詞儘量使用表達全文內容的關鍵字，下面舉例說明標題中關鍵字的出現率。例1

a． 標題：On the Fatigue Life Prediction of Spot Welded Components

b．

關鍵字：fatigue spotweld automobile life prediction •

疲勞 點焊 汽車 壽命預測

b．標題：Computer Simulation and Experimental Study On Cold Shut During Mold Filling

關鍵字：mold filling computer simulation cold shut casting

鑄件充型 電腦類比 冷隔 鑄造

c．標題：Investigation of Air Bags Deployment Forces on Out-of Position Occupant

關鍵字：air bag out-of-position occupant

安全氣囊 離位乘員

c． 標題：New Fatigue Test and Statistical Method for Metallic Materials Used in Vehicle Transmissions

關鍵字：fatigue test statistical method test specimens

疲勞實驗 統計方法 試樣分析：
[ Last edit by caozk]
關 鍵 詞：綜述 技巧 論文寫作 摘要 英文論文
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例1a中，有4個關鍵字，在標題裏出現了3個，而標題中出現的兩個名詞片語fatigue life prediction 和 spot welded components都是文章的關鍵字。

在例1b中，有4個關鍵字，其中3個出現在標題裏。標題中用了4個名詞片語：computer simulation，experimental study，cold shut，mold filling，其中3個是關鍵字。

例1c中有2個關鍵字，在標題裏都出現。標題中用了3個名詞或名詞片語：investigation，air bags deployment forces，out-of-position occupant，其中兩個是關鍵字。

例1d中有3個關鍵字，其中2個出現在標題裏。

從上面四個例子可以看出，標題中的用詞多是文章的關鍵字，明確、精煉，將文章的主要內容予以高度概括。

標題中用得最多的是名詞或名詞片語，一般不用動詞或動詞片語。如果用動詞，則用非謂語動詞形式，如動名詞、不定式或分詞。

從表6.1和表6.2可以看出，在標題平均9個單詞中，有5.5個是名詞，占一半以上。除名詞外，用得較多的是介詞of，in，on等，再其次是連詞and和形容詞。偶爾也需要用一些其他詞性的詞，如副詞、冠詞等。

6.3 標題的結構

學術文章的標題主要有三種結構：名詞性片語(包括動名詞)，介詞片語，名詞片語+介詞片語。間或也用一個疑問句作標題(多用在人文社會科學領域)，但一般不用陳述句或動詞片語作標題。

(1)名詞性片語

名詞性片語由名詞及其修飾語構成。名詞的修飾語可以是形容詞、介詞短語，有時也可以是另一個名詞。名詞修飾名詞時，往往可以縮短標題的長度。以下各標題分別由兩個名詞片語構成。

例2

a．Severe Weather and the Automobile

(名詞片語) (名詞片語)

b．Soil Behavior and Critical Soil Mechanics

(名詞片語) (名詞片語)

c．High Speed Flow Sensor and Fluid Power Systems Modelling

(名詞片語) (名詞片語)

d．Traditional Versus Adult Studies Students: the College

(名詞片語) (名詞片語)

Experience

(2)介詞片語

介詞片語由介詞十名詞或名詞片語構成。如果整個標題就是一個介詞片語的話，一般這個介詞是“on”，意思是“對……的研究”。

例3

a． On the Distribution of Sound in a Corridor

b． On the Crushing Mechanism of Thin Walled Structures

(3)名詞／名詞片語+介詞片語這是標題中用得最多的結構。

例4

a．Fundamentals of Flow Measurement ．

(名詞) (介詞片語)

b．Scattered Sound and Reverberation on Gity Streets and in Tunnels

(名詞片語) (介詞片語)

c．Dietary Supplement and Body Image in Female College Students

(名詞片語) (名詞片語) (介詞片語)

d．Knowledge of Cardiovascular Disease in University Students

(名詞) (介詞片語) (介詞片語)

e．Diversity in the Future Work Force

(名詞) (介詞片語)

f．Progress on Fuel Cell and Its Materials

(名詞) (介詞片語)

g．Damping Capacity of Shape Memory Alloy

(名詞片語) (介詞片語)

h．Acoustics of Long Spaces：Theory and Application

(名詞) (介詞片語) (名詞片語)

i. Investigation of Air Bags Deployment Forces

(名詞) (介詞片語)

on Out-of-Position Occupant

(介詞片語)

j. Models of sustaining Human and Natural Development

(名詞) (介詞片語) in an Urban Environment

(介詞片語)

標題中的介詞片語一般用來修飾名詞或名詞片語，從而限定某研究課題的範圍。這種結構與中文的“的”字結構相似，區別是中文標題中修飾語在前，中心詞在後。英文正好相反，名詞在前，而作為修飾語的介詞短語在後。

例5

a． Progress on Fuel Cell and lts Materials

燃料電池及其材料進展

b． Computer Simulation and Experimental Study On Co1d Shut During Mold Filling

鑄件充型中冷隔過程電腦類比及其實驗研究

c. On the Fatigue Life Prediction of Spot Welded Components

點焊汽車構件疲勞壽命預測

c． Investigation of Air Bags Deployment Forces on Out-Of-Position Occupant

安全氣囊對離位乘員作用力的分析與研究

(4)其他形式

對於值得爭議的問題，偶爾可用疑問句作為論文的標題，以點明整個論文討論的焦點。

例6

a． Do Electromagnetic Fields Affect the Way Plants Grow?

b． Do Specific Ambient Odors Enhance Short Term Memory Function?

c．130 Heterotrophic Protozoa Release Major Quantities Of Dissolved Organic Phosphorous in Lake Water?
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有的標題由兩部分組成，用冒號(：)隔開。一般來說，冒號前面一部分是研究的物件、內容或課題，比較籠統，冒號後面具體說明研究重點或研究方法。這種結構可再分為三種模式。

模式1 研究課題：具體內容

例7

a． Microelectronic Assembly and Packaging Technology：Barriers and Needs

b． Fire Resistant Steels for Construction：Design，Properties and Microchemistry

c．Acoustics of Long Spaces Theory and Application

d．Impact of Cancer：Coping Process and Quality of Life

模式2 研究課題：方法／性質

例8

a． Solid Oxide Fuel Cell：A Survey

b. Absorbable Implants in Finger Fractures. A Biomechanical and Comparative Study

c. The Use of Technology in Higher Education Programs: a National Survey

d. Development of New Public Water Supply Well-fields Using Electromagnetic Conductance: Two Case Studies

模式 3 研究課題：問題焦點

a. Aluminum: Is It Hazardous to Your Health?

b. Noise: Good? Bad? Maybe Both?

c. Manure: Friend or Foe?

思考題

下面這寫論文標題是否合適？如果不合適，請修改。

1. Auditory Perspectives of Different Types of Music

2. Electromagnetic Fields Have Harmful Effects on Humans

3. How to Use Water Resources for Irrigation in Semiarid Land

4. Water Quality Can Be Protected Through the Successful Integration of Research and Education

5. The Single Community Concept: A Model for Adult Environmental Education

6. Physics and Art: Conceptual Linkages Can Be Uncovered

7. Diamond Is Used for Electronic Devices

8. Yellow Fever's Effect on Transportation and Commerce

9. The Nature of Student Science Project Is Compared with Educational Goals for Science

10. A Qualitative / Quantitative Analysis of the Administrative Management Institute at Cornell University

11. The Americans With Disability Act and Its Applicability

to the Mentally Ill, Human Immune-Deficiency Virus and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Populations: A Statistical Analysis

參考答案

下面這寫論文標題是否合適？如果不合適，請修改。

1. Auditory Perspectives of Different Types of Music (合適)

2. Electromagnetic Fields Have Harmful Effects on Humans (不合適）

改為 :Harmful Effects of Electromagnetic Fields on Humans

3. How to Use Water Resources for Irrigation in Semiarid Land（不合適)

該為: Using Water Resources for Irrigation in Semiarid Land

4. Water Quality Can Be Protected Through the Successful Integration of Research and Education( 不合適)

該為: Protecting Water Quality Through the Successful Integration of Research and Education

5. The Single Community Concept: A Model for Adult Environmental Education (合適 )

6. Physics and Art: Conceptual Linkages Can Be Uncovered（不合適）

改為: Physics and Art: Uncovering Conceptual Linkages

7. Diamond Is Used for Electronic Devices(不合適)

該為 :Use of Diamond for Electric Devices

8. Yellow Fever's Effect on Transportation and Commerce (合適）

9. The Nature of Student Science Project Is Compared with Educational Goals for Science(不合適)

改為: The Nature of Student Science Projects in Comparison to Educational Goals for Science

10. A Qualitative / Quantitative analysis of the Administrative Management Institute at Comell University (合適)

11. The Americans With Disability Act and Its Applicability to the Mentally Ill, Human Immune-Deficiency Virus and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Populations: A Statistical Analysis ( 不合適)

該為: The Americans With Disability Act and Its Applicability to the Mentally Ill, Human Immune-Deficiency Virus and AIDS Populations: A Statistical Analysis
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英文論文引言的寫作技巧

引言的寫作技巧

學術論文中的引言(Introduction)是對全文內容和結構的總體勾畫。引言儘管不像摘要那樣有一定的篇幅限制和相對固定的格式，但在內容和結構模式上也有需要遵循的規律。本章首先介紹這些規律，然後探討需要掌握的語言技巧。

8.1 引言的內容與結構佈局

引言的主要任務是向讀者勾勒出全文的基本內容和輪廓。它可以包括以下五項內容中的全部或其中幾項：

介紹某研究領域的背景、意義、發展狀況、目前的水準等;

對相關領域的文獻進行回顧和綜述，包括前人的研究成果，已經解決的問題，並適當加以評價或比較；

指出前人尚未解決的問題，留下的技術空白，也可以提出新問題、解決這些新問題的新方法、新思路，從而引出自己研究課題的動機與意義；

說明自己研究課題的目的；

概括論文的主要內容，或勾勒其大體輪廓。

如何合理安排以上這些內容，將它們有條有理地給讀者描繪清楚，並非容易之事。經驗告訴我們，引言其實是全文最難寫的—部分。這是因為作者對有關學科領域的熟悉程度，作者的知識是淵博、還是貧乏，研究的意義何在、價值如何等問題，都在引言的字裏行間得以充分體現。

我們可以將引言的內容分為三到四個層次來安排(如圖8.1所示)。第一層由研究背景、意義、發展狀況等內容組成，其中還包括某一研究領域的文獻綜述；第二層提出目前尚未解決的問題或急需解決的問題，從而引出自己的研究動機與意義；第三層說明自己研究的具體目的與內容；最後是引言的結尾，可以介紹一下論文的組成部分。

第一層：1) Introducing the general research area including its background, importance, and present level of development……………………………………………………………2) Reviewing previous research in this area……………………………………………………………………第二層： Indicating the problem that has not been solved by previous research, raising a relevant question ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………第三層：Specifying the purpose of your research………………………………………………………………………………………………………………第四層：1) Announcing your major findings ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………2) Outlining the contents of your paper …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………　

圖8.1 引言的結構佈局之一

值得注意的是，引言中各個層次所占的篇幅可以有很大差別。這一點與摘要大不一樣，摘要中的目的、方法、結果、結論四項內容各自所占的篇幅大體比例一樣(見7.2節)。而在引言中，第一個層次往往占去大部分篇幅。對研究背景和目前的研究狀況進行較為詳細的介紹。研究目的可能會比較簡短。

引言與摘要還有一點不同的是，摘要中必須把主要研究結果列出，而在引言中(如果摘要與正文一同登出)結果則可以省略不寫，這是因為正文中專門有一節寫結果(results)，不必在引言中重複。

下面這段引言的例子摘自一篇關於混合電動汽車的研究論文，大部分篇幅介紹研究背景。

例1

A Hybrid Internal Combustion Engine/Battery Electric Passenger Car for Petroleum Displacement I. Forster and J. R. Bumby INTRODUCTION [1] The finite nature of the world's oil resources and the general concern about automobile emissions have prompted the adoption of energy conservation policies and emphasized the need to transfer energy demand from oil to other sources of energy, such as natural gas, coal and nuclear. [2] A transfer of energy from oil to electricity can be achieved to a limited extent in the road trans- port sector by the increased use of electric vehicle. However, such vehicles are limited in range due to the amount Of energy that can he realistically stored on-board the vehicle without affecting payload. As a consequence of this, electric vehicles must he used in situations where daily usage is well defined, for example, in urban delivery duty. Indeed, it has been in such vehicles as the urban milk delivery vehicles that electric traction drives have been traditionally applied with a great deal of success. Currently the demand is for urban electric vehicles to he developed with greater traffic compatibility in terms of speed and range. 分析：第一層(第1—5段)：介紹混合電動汽車的研究背景、意義、目前的發展水準，需要解決的問題等。第1段：指出混合電動汽車的研究背景。世界石油資源的有限性及人們對汽車排放問題的廣泛關注使得能源轉換問題尤為重要。第2段：使用電動汽車能夠從某種程度上實現能源轉換。但問題是電動汽車的續駛里程比內燃機車短。所以目前要解決的問題是提高電動汽車的速度和續駛里程。

[3] Although urban delivery vehicle applications will help to reduce the dependence of the road transport sector on petroleum-based fuels, the major part of this market requires vehicles that are not limited in range and have a performance compatible with internal combustion, i.e. engine vehicles. The use of advanced traction battery technology to overcome the range limitation of electric vehicles is one possible solution. However, this would still result in a vehicle limited in range and may in itself create additional problems. For example, due to the much greater on- board stored energy, the charging time required will be greater than at present. [4] The range limitations of the pure electric vehicle can be overcome by using a hybrid i.c. engine/electric drive which incorporates both an i.c. engine and an electric traction system. Al- though such a vehicle can be designed to meet a number of objectives, it has been argued that a vehicle which seeks to remove the range limitation of the electric vehicle while substituting a substantial amount of petroleum fuel by electrical energy is the vehicle most worth pursuing. With the emphasis of the vehicle design on the electric drive train, the intention may be to operate in an all-electric mode under urban conditions and to use the i.c. engine for long-distance motorway driving. The hybrid mode could then he used for extending urban range and/or improving vehicle accelerative performance on accelerator kick-down.[5] The concept of a hybrid electric vehicle capable of substituting petroleum fuel is' not new, 第3段：市場要求電動汽車的續駛里程及工作性能與內燃機汽車媲美，但是，即使先進電池可以提高電動汽車的續駛里程，但還會有一些問題不能解決。 第4段：續駛里程可以通過使用混合電動汽車來提高。混合電動汽車上既裝有內燃機，又裝有電動驅動系統，在必要時使用其中一種系統。第5段：回顧並評述前人關於混合電動汽車

Bosch and Volkswagen having built vehicles in the 1970s. More recently, the advent of the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development and Demonstration Programme in the United States of America initiated the design and construction of a Near Term Hybrid Vehicle (NTHV) with the principal aim of substituting petroleum fuel by ' wall plug' electricity. [6] As part of the NTHV programme, a large number of conceptual studies were conducted but on vehicles aimed at the American passenger car market. In this paper optimization studies were conducted, but now on a vehicle suitable for the European medium-sized passenger car market. Such optimization studies are important as, with two sources of traction power available, the way in which they are controlled, and their relative sizing, is fundamental to the way the vehicle performs.[7] Before examining in detail the optimum control strategy for the drive train, Section 2 defines the hybrid arrangement under study. A description of the optimization process using an appro
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英文論文摘要的寫作技巧

摘要的寫作技巧

英文摘要(Abstract)的寫作應用很廣。不僅參加國際學術會議、向國際學術刊物投稿要寫摘要，國內級別較高的學術期刊也要求附上英文摘要。學位論文更是如此。論文摘要是全文的精華，是對一項科學研究工作的總結，對研究目的、方法和研究結果的概括。本章主要介紹摘要的組成部分、寫作方法、各部分的語言特點以及典型句型。

1. 摘要的種類與特點

摘要主要有以下四種。

第一種是隨同論文一起在學術刊物上發表的摘要。這種摘要置於主體部分之前，目的是讓讀者首先瞭解一下論文的內容，以便決定是否閱讀全文。一般來說，這種摘要在全文完成之後寫。字數限制在100～150字之間。內容包括研究目的、研究方法、研究結果和主要結論。

第二種是學術會議論文摘要。會議論文摘要往往在會議召開之前幾個月撰寫，目的是交給會議論文評審委員會評閱，從而決定是否能夠錄用。所以，比第一種略為詳細，長度在200—300字之間。會議論文摘要的開頭有必要簡單介紹一下研究課題的意義、目的、宗旨等。如果在寫摘要時，研究工作尚未完成，全部研究結果還未得到，那麼，應在方法、目的、宗旨、假設等方面多花筆墨。

第三種為學位論文摘要。學士、碩士和博士論文摘要一般都要求用中、英文兩種語言寫。學位論文摘要一般在400字左右，根據需要可以分為幾個段落。內容一般包括研究背景、意義、主旨和目的；基本理論依據，基本假設；研究方法；研究結果；主要創新點；簡短討論。不同級別的學位論文摘要，要突出不同程度的創新之處，指出有何新的觀點、見解或解決問題的新方法。

第四種是脫離原文而獨立發表的摘要。這種摘要更應該具有獨立性、自含性、完整性。讀者無需閱讀全文，便可以瞭解全文的主要內容。

以上四種摘要具有許多共性。無論哪種摘要，內容一般都包括：

(1)目的(objectives，purposes)：包括研究背景、範圍、內容、要解決的問題及解決這一問題的重要性和意義。

(2)方法(methods and materials)：包括材料、手段和過程。

(3)結果與簡短討論(results and discussions)：包括資料與分析。

(4)結論(conclusions)：主要結論，研究的價值和意義等。

無論哪種摘要，語言特點和文體風格也都相同。首先必須符合格式規範。第二，語言必須規範通順，準確得體，用詞要確切、恰如其分，而且要避免非通用的符號、縮略語、生偏詞。另外，摘要的語氣要客觀，不要作出言過其實的結論。

下面從內容、結構佈局和語言特點三方面著手，討論摘要的寫作方法和技巧。

2. 摘要的內容與結構

一般來說，摘要必須包括研究目的，研究方法，研究結果，主要結論等內容。也就是說，摘要必須回答“研究什麼”、“怎麼研究”、“得到了什麼結果”、“結果說明了什麼”等問題。

2.1 學術期刊論文摘要

這種摘要隨同全文一起發表，簡短精煉是其主要特點。只需簡明扼要地將研究目的、方法、結果和結論分別用1～2句話加以概括即可(如圖所示)。至於研究背景或宗旨應在論文的Introduction部分較詳細介紹，不必在摘要裏介紹。

Title

Author(s), address

Objectives,purpose,hypotheses ..............................................……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Methods,materials,procedures .................................................…………………………………………………………………………………………..

Results,data,observations,discussion ...........................................…………………………………………………………………… Conclusions .............................................................................................................................

期刊論文摘要結構佈局

例1．

DOES ALUMINUM ENTER THE LIQUID OONTAINED

IN POP CANS AND ALUMINUM COOKWARE?

Daniel T. Moss

Campbell, 353 North King St., Xenia OH 45385

Objective: 1This investigation was performed to see if the aluminum in pop cans (易開罐)and aluminum cookware enters the liquid they contain. It was hypothesized that aluminum does enter the liquids in aluminum cans and cookware. Methods and Materials: This experiment was performed by testing seven different types of carbonated beverages and water boiled in aluminum cookware for three hours. Every hour a sample was removed for testing. The cookware consisted of a new and old aluminum pot. The colorimetric method was used to determine the concentration of aluminum. Results: The results showed that aluminum was present in carbonated beverages and in the water boiled in the cookware. Conclusions: It was concluded that aluminum existed in carbonated beverages and substances cooked in aluminum cookware, and that the concentration of aluminum increased with time. (126 words)

(本章選文中黑體部分為編者注。)

分析：

本摘要共8句話，126個詞。第1句話指出了研究目的：裝在易開罐或鋁制炊具中的液體是否含有鋁。第2句是假設，鋁可能真的會進人裝在鋁制罐子或炊具中的液體之中。第3～6句是實驗材料、時間與方法。第7句是實驗結果。第8句是結論：存放於鋁制容器或炊具中的液體內含有鋁，而且存放的時間越長，鋁含量越高。

例1中的主要句型結構如下：

This investigation was performed to see 表示研究目的

It was hypothesized that 表示假設

This experiment was performed by testing 表示實驗過程和方法

The colorimetric method was used to determine 表示測量方法

The results showed that 表示實驗結果

It was concluded that 表示結論

例2

FACTORS INVOLVED IN POAG:

CAROTENOID INTAKE, EYE COLOR, ANDGIRTH MEASUREMENTS

C. A. Greenell and D. M. Spillman

Department of Physical Education, Health and Sports Studies,

Phillops Hall, Miami University, Oxford Oh 45056

Objective: This study investigates possible effects of high intake of carotenoids(類胡羅蔔素), eye color, and girth measurements(眼睛大小)on primary open angle glaucoma (POAG 青光眼). Methods and Materials: Researchers designed a questionnaire that inquired about diet and family and personal health history. This questionnaire was administered to 250 individuals suffering from glaucoma. Results and Discussion: The dietary data suggested a possible correlation between low habitual intake of vitamin A, E, and C and higher risk of POAG. In addition, the number of persons suffering from POAG with blue eye color was significantly higher than those with brown or green. Finally, a possible association was suggested concerning girth measurements: those persons with proportionately larger than normal girth measurements may be more likely to suffer from POAG. (117 words)

分析：•

本摘要只有6句話，117個詞。第1句話明確指出研究目的：說明類胡蘿蔔素的攝人量大、眼睛顏色及眼睛大小與青光眼的關係。第2—3句是研究方法與研究物件。方法是通過調查問卷，研究物件是250名青光眼患者。第4～6句話每句話是調查結果：

1) 維生素A、E、C攝人量低可能與青光眼發病率高有關係；

2) 藍眼睛青光眼患者的比例遠遠超過棕色眼睛或綠色眼睛青光眼患者；

3) 眼睛過大的人患青光眼的可能性更大。

本摘要中的主要句型結構：

This study investigates…表示研究內容或目的

Researchers designed a questionnaire…表示研究方法

This questionnaire was administered to…表示研究物件

The dietary data suggests that…表示調查資料與結果

A possible association has been suggested…表示調查結果

2.2 學術會議論文摘要

學術會議論文摘要寫得好壞，直接關係到論文是否被錄用。摘要起到說服會議論文評審委員會的作用。因此，摘要應該首先簡要說明研究背景、內容、範圍、價值與意義。在研究方法上也可以多花一點筆墨。會議論文摘要一般在200～250詞之間。其結構佈局如圖2所示。

Title

Author(s), address

Background, 15revious studies, present situation, problems that need to be

solved: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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英文論文正文的寫作技巧

正文的寫作技巧

學術論文的主體部分由引言、正文和結論構成。正文部分包括方法、結果與討論。由於學術論文所涉及的學科、範圍廣泛，即使在同一學科領域內，由於選題、研究方法、工作進程不同，正文部分的內容也不盡相同，寫作方法也就不存在統一的規定或一成不變的模式。所以，本章只著重介紹寫正文部分時一些較為典型的語言現象，希望讀者能夠從中尋求到一般規律。

7.1 描述研究方法

研究方法(Method)部分主要內容包括：

(1)研究工作具備的基本前提或條件，如實驗材料、實驗場所、設備器材等。

(2)採樣、實驗、獲取資料，並對資料進行技術處理的方法與過程。

(3)理論分析，包括理論依據、基本原理、公式推導、數理模型等。

採樣與實驗過程，要根據先後順序或步驟進行描述。例1選自描述對千屈萊這種植物生長的採樣與實驗過程。

例l

Materials and Methods

[1] In August 1994，entire purple loosestrife(千屈萊)plants were harvested from three habitats(生長環境)：1) an upland old field in the Cuyahoga Valley National Recreation Area in north-eastern Ohio (n=5)；2) a shallow ditch along Route 261 in Kent, OH (n = 10); and 3) the western shoreline of East Twin Lake, Portage County, OH (n = 6). These sites represent habitats which are never inundated(淹沒) with water, are periodically inundated, or have saturated(浸透) soils, respectively. [2]Shoot sections (嫩枝條)of 5, 10, and 15 cm lengths were cut from these plants and positioned in flats(平地) containing a soil mixture of perlite (珍珠岩), vermiculite ( 蛭岩), and peatmoss (苔泥炭) ( 1:1:1). The flats were maintained in the Department of Biological Sciences' greenhouse where they experienced ambient meteorological conditions except for 6 seconds of mist every 3. 5 minutes between 8: 00 and 20: 00 hours daily. Shoot sections and attached leaves were examined at weekly intervals for pigment (色質) and tissue changes as well as for development of lateral shoots. After 26～28 days the sections were rinsed to remove adherent material and dried at room temperature (approximately 22℃ ) for a week. The adventitious roots from each section were removed with needle-nose forceps, dried at 60℃ for 24 hours, and then weighed to determine dry biomass. One lake site 5-cm section was lost during processing.

分析：

此部分嚴格按照時間順序描述實驗過程。第1段描述採樣的時間、試樣的來源與數量。名叫“千屈萊”的試樣來自三個地帶，分別代表三種生長環境。試樣的數量分別是5、10、6棵。第2段首先描述實驗基地，及其環境與條件。然後客觀描述實驗的詳細過程與步驟。描述某一研究方法時，要考慮讀者是否瞭解此方法。如果不瞭解，描述便需要詳細一些。這一點在農、林、醫學、教育、社會科學、環境科學等領域尤為突出。例2中的選段描述的是一個關於生活用水和農業用水品質”函授培訓班的教學與評估方法。由於教學過程與評估方法的特殊性，讀者事先不可能對它有詳細瞭解，所以文中要描述得清楚、詳細一些。

例2

Correspondence Teaching Methods

[1] The program evaluated in this research was a correspondence training course entitled "Quality Water for Home and Farm" developed for county extension agents( 函授部學員). The program began with a one-day meeting followed by seven monthly written lessons. The program concluded with another one-day meeting. The one lesson-per-month format was selected to allow agents to complete the assignments as part of their regular work schedule.

[2] The program followed a simple model for identifying water quality problems and potential solutions.

Step 1: Identify the beneficial uses of water (such as for drinking water, livestock water, irrigation, recreation).

Step 2: Test the water to ensure that it is of sufficient quality for the beneficial use.

Step 3: If water quality problems are identified, examine correction options in four categories to determine which is most affordable and appropriate. The categories are:

1. Protect the supply from the contaminant;

2. Find and eliminate the contaminant source;

3. Treat the water to remove the contaminant;

4. Find and develop a new water supply.

[3] Steps 1 and 2 on water testing were presented to participants in the initial six-hour meeting. The first correspondence lesson also covered water testing. The six remaining correspondence lessons addressed each of the options for solving water quality problems. Water treatment was divided into three lessons; disinfection, treatment of nuisance waters, and removals of toxins. The final lesson and final meeting covered the development of new water supplies. Each written lesson contained reading material, references, teaching materials, questions, calculations, and exercises.

[4]Agents taking the water quality correspondence training were required to return assignments each month to remain enrolled in the program. Letters of encouragement were sent to delinquents. At the end of the program, extension agents who completed the program received certificates. A list of graduates was distributed to extension administrators, faculty, and staff.

Evaluation Methods

[5]The participants were tested to evaluate the extent of learning. Simple tests were constructed of true/false, multiple choice, and fill-in-the-blank questions to address the important aspects of the program using methods described by Ary et al. (1990). A written pretest was administered at the beginning of the first meeting. A post test of similar but different questions was administered at the end of the closing meeting. The purpose of the pretest was to measure the previous knowledge of the participants. The participants may also learn the subject matter from the pretest, become familiar with the testing approach and therefore be less anxious when taking the post test.

[6] The post tests were used to measure the increased knowledge and skills of the participants following the inservice. The post tests also served to reinforce the most important aspects of the training and helped illustrate to the participants and instructor where additional study may be required.

[7] Acquisition of new skills was evaluated using practicum exercises and demonstrations. Following instruction in how to interpret a test report each participant was given a water test report and asked to write their interpretation. After being taught how to collect a water sample, five agents were selected at random and asked to collect a water sample for the instructor.

[8] The teaching activity of the agents was measured through their monthly assignment reports.

分析：

例2比較詳細地描述一個函授培訓班的管理、教學與評估方法。第1～4段為管理與教學方法。篇章的佈局模式基本上是先後順序與步驟式，即按照培訓班的三個主要階段的先後順序來安排文章的結構。

第5～8段介紹培訓班學習效果的評估方法。共採用三種方法進行評估。第5～6段介紹對主要教學內容的整體評估方法，也就是將pretest(培訓前測試)與posttest(培訓後測試)相結合的方法。第7段和第8段分別介紹教學過程中單項技能評估方法。

7.1.1 描述方法時的語言特點

採用被動語態的過去式是描述實驗方法與過程時最典型的句子結構特點。這並不是科技英語寫作中的什麼規定或者原則，而是因為在描述實驗過程或方法時，句子中的主題或中心是實驗材料、場地和方法本身，表達“做了什麼”、“怎麼做的”之意，而不是表達“誰做了什麼”。因此，在描述方法時，常將實驗材料或受試者作為主語，謂語動詞自然要用被動語態。我們可以利用例1和例2中的句子加以說明。

例3中的句子都摘自例1“Materials and Methods"部
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英文論文的結論部分寫作要點

結論、致謝、參考文獻

8.1 如何寫結論

學術文章的結論部分(Conclusion)是作者對有關研究課題進行的總體性討論。結論必須具有嚴密的科學性和客觀性，它反映本研究課題的價值，同時對以後的研究具有指導意義。如果文章中的Discussion一節已對研究結果進行了全面的分析、綜合、歸納、推理和總結，那麼Conclusion則可以比較簡短。

從某種意義上說，Conclusion與Introduction遙相呼應，因為Introduction部分介紹了本課題的研究目的，那麼Conclusion要告訴讀者這些目的是否達到，在研究中做了哪些工作，取得了什麼結果，這些結果說明了什麼問題，有何價值和意義，研究過程中存在或發現了哪些問題，原因是什麼，建議如何解決等。

8.1.1 結論部分的內容與結構佈局

一般來說，結論部分的具體內容及其組織框架如下。

(1) 概括說明本課題的研究內容、結果及其意義與價值。(2) 比較具體地說明本研究證明了什麼假設或理論，得出了什麼結論，研究結果有何實用價值，有何創造性成果或見解，解決了什麼實際問題，有何應用前景等。(3) 與他人的相關研究進行比較。(4) 本課題的局限性、不足之處，還有哪些尚待解決的問題。

(5)展望前景，或指出進一步研究的方向。在上面五項內容中，第一、二項是必不可少的。第三、四、五項內容可以根據需要而定。

例1 Conclusion 1Two factors to influence mold filling (鑄件充型) have been studied. one is the pouring temperature (澆鑄溫度) and the other is the molding method (by machine or by hand). 2The filling length (充型長度) is proportional to the pouring temperature. 3The influence of different molding methods on mold filling is more complicated. 4The filling length in the hand-made mold is 1.5 times as long as the one in the machine-made mold due to different thermal conductivity ( 熱導性能). 5Venting (出氣孔) has little influence. 6The simulated results are in good agreement with the experiments.

分析：第1句概括研究內容：研究影響鑄件充型的兩個因素，即澆鑄溫度與鑄型方法。第2～5句總結通過研究而得出的結論，即上述兩個因素是如何影響鑄件充型的。其中第2句說明第一個因素(澆鑄溫度)與充型長度的關係是成比例的。第3句說明第二個因素(鑄型方法)的影響比較複雜。第4句說明手工鑄型與機器鑄型方法對長度的不同影響。第5句說明出氣孔的影響小。第6句是對研究結果的總結性評價。

例2 Conclusions 1Through the example of a 60-storey building design, it has been demonstrated that a simplified approach can be used to assess the ultimate lateral shear strength (整體極限抗剪能力) of a structure. 2The proposed simplified design approach in the typical building seismic design process (抗震設計過程) would be valuable. 3From the findings of the simplified design, new building can be fine tuned for a better allocation of material. 4 In existing buildings, the approach can be used to identify locations of potential undercapacity (載荷能力弱的部分). 5Although the proposed approach is based on solid capacity design concepts, it involves substantial implifications. 6To confirm the results of this simplified approach, a more complete analysis of the core-frame system is suggested for further studies.

分析：例2選自一篇建築物整體極限抗剪能力的測算方法的論文。首先概括了文章的內容，而且指出了本研究的局限性，並為下一步研究工作提出了建議。選段中的第1句概括研究課題內容，即提出了一個整體極限抗剪能力測算的簡便方法。第2～4句肯定了這一設計方法的價值和應用前景。分別說明此方法有利於建築物的抗震設計、建築材料的合理分配，也有利於查出建築物內荷載能力弱的部分。第5句是這一方法的局限性：儘管此方法以負載能力理論為依據，但做了大量的簡化工作。因此第6句建議下一步研究方向，以證明文中所提出的方法的可靠性。

例31Overall, our study has revealed a variety of patterns at the community and population levels, none of which seem to indicate obvious decline in southeastern Ohio's oak-hickory (橡樹與山核桃科樹木) forests. 2Clearly, sporadic insect outbreaks, pathogens (病菌), and climatic events have caused excessive mortality of certain species in certain stands (樹林). 3Some stands exhibited mortality as high as 40%. 4However, an average of 20% dead stems in a stand appears to be reasonable without inferring excessive mortality or decline. 5Likewise, certain species were in an obvious state of decline, but these generally had a clear pathogenic explanation. 6Changes occurring due to insects and pathogens may be a natural and necessary phenomenon (Castello et al. 1995). 7Evaluation of decline symptoms in smaller size classes might provide additional useful information to be used in understanding the oak regeneration problem.

分析：例3摘自一篇關於俄亥俄東南部地區橡樹與山核桃科樹木生長狀況的研究論文。第1句：對研究內容的總體概括。第2～5句：總結研究結果，即某些樹種死亡的原因是害蟲、病菌和氣候。其中第2句概括這些原因，第3～5句是具體結果及原因：有些林區的樹木死亡率為40％，但是20％屬於正常現象；有些樹種死亡現象明顯，原因是病菌的侵害。第6句：引用他人的研究結果和觀點，以解釋上述結果。害蟲和病菌的侵襲所造成的樹木死亡是一種自然和必然的現象。第7句：指出以後的研究方向。下面一則結論摘自一篇關於學校科技活動專案是否有助於達到科學教育目標的研究論文。

例41Science projects appear to be an important part of science education. 2Teachers feel that student science projects are meeting the educational goals for science. 3Experience through modeling the necessary skills in the classroom has the strongest relationship to science projects meeting these goals. 4Participation in a science fair beyond the local level, and supportive help from parents and other adults may also improve the effectiveness of student science projects. 5By utilizing these methods, more teachers may be able to address the goals of the National Science Teachers Association.

分析：第1—2句為總體結論：學校的科技活動是科技教育中的一個重要組成部分。教師認為，學生的科技活動有助於實現科技教育目標。第3～4句為兩條具體結論：第一條結論是：課堂上的模擬操作活動經驗與實現科技教育的目標有密切關係。第二條結論是：參加科技博覽會、父母或其他成人的支持可以提高學生科技活動的效果。第5句展望未來趨勢。從上述例子可以看出，通過一項研究工作，可能會得出幾條結論，這些結論的主次輕重可以從字裏行間表現出來。如例4中的第3句話通過使用…has the strongest relationship…點出了最主要的結論，而在第4句話中運用…also…這個詞，來表示遞進關係，說明這句話陳述的內容是研究結論之二。有時為了清楚醒目，可以將結論列成幾條，例5和例6都是如此。

例5Conclusions(1) A systematic crashworthiness ( 碰撞性能) development of a lightweight electrical vehicle with aluminum front structure and composite (複合材料) passenger compartment is successfully completed and discussed here. Nonlinear finite element analysis (非線性有限元分析法) is used extensively to design and optimize the aluminum structure. (2) Implementation of damage mechanics models in the nonlinear crash codes reliably predict the post-yield behavior of aluminum components, and therefore, the codes can be successfully used for crashworthiness development of metallic structures with limited ductility (韌性有限的金屬結構).(3) Even though crash analysis of composite members is not possible at this time, current modeling technology provides sufficient information about their design.(4) Development of material models in crash analysis codes to simulate the crash behavior of composite components can help to develop composite front-end structures for crashworthiness performance.

例6 Conclusions In this paper, a new prototype model of micropump(微小醫用泵) using ICPF actuator (驅動控制器) is proposed.
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7# 只看作者 回復於：2007-5-21 13:30:00
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英文論文的標點

Punctuation

Bad punctuation can often make even the best writing unintelligible. On the other hand, good punctuation can make your meaning clear and your language effective. English punctuation generally differs from that of other European languages; even though there is often considerable room for personal preferences, a mastery of the basic rules is indispensable.

There is one overriding principle: to use the bare minimum of punctuation necessary to keep the writing intelligible. The following list of rules makes no claim to exhaustiveness.

I. The Apostrophe (')

1. men's, women's, children's, people's

It is correct to write this area's problems, meaning "the problems of this area", and these areas' problems, meaning "the problems of these areas": in fact, putting apostrophes anywhere else would be wrong. But the plurals of man, woman, and child are exceptions to this general rule: thus we write the men's wives, the women's husbands, the children's mothers, and nothing else.

Another important exception is the word people when it denotes the plural of "person": thus we would write these people's behavior, meaning "the behavior of these persons", but these peoples' behavior, meaning "the behavior of these peoples" (i.e. ethnic groups).

Other irregular plurals are treated in the same way as men, women, children, and people: above all the plurals of ox, sheep, goose and mice (e.g. the oxen's pasture, the sheep's wool, the geese's flight, the mice's tails).

2. A mistake that is frequent among foreign learners of English is to write a phrase such as "these area's problems", when what the person actually means is these problems of the area. 3. It is best to use the apostrophe when you want to show the plural of something which cannot normally be plural:

The past tense of occur is spelt with two r's.

I accept the idea in principle, but there are a lot of if’s.

4. Strings of apostrophes are to be avoided. Thus one should write the friends of that man's son, instead of "that man's son's friends".

5. We say in ten days' time, in twenty years' time (i.e. we use the apostrophe). 6. We say each other's, not "each others'" (e.g. to get on each other's nerves).

II. The Colon (:) 1. Quotations

The colon is often used to introduce quotations:

To quote Nietzsche: "God is dead!"

As the bard (One of an ancient Celtic order of minstrel poets who composed and recited verses celebrating the legendary exploits of chieftains and heroes.吟游詩人古代凱爾特族的吟游詩人，自編自唱，吟唱酋長和英雄的傳奇業績) so abruptly puts it:“All the world’s a stage”

The colon can also be used to introduce direct speech, especially in rather formal or serious contexts:

Finally Mark Antony began his address: "Friends, Romans, countrymen (compatriots), lend me your ears...".

N.B. (N.B.=[拉]nota bene (=note well)注意, 留心)

i. The colon is not used to introduce conversation.

ii. Direct formal quotations begin with a capital letter.

iii. The colon is not used to introduce quotes consisting of very brief phrases:

Do you know that Mrs Thatcher actually said "shut up" to Lord Carrington?

2. Explanations

The colon is often used after a main clause where the following statement explains, elaborates, or illustrates that clause, especially in formal contexts. It may sometimes be replaced by a full stop or a semicolon.

There is no point in worrying: disasters are sure to happen anyway. (Full stop and semicolon also possible.)

The Church is totally opposed to two aspects of the permissive society: that is, abortion on demand and artificial methods of birth control.

Apartheid (種族隔離) was not overthrown: rather, it died a natural death. (Full stop and semicolon also possible.)

The question is this: Is killing ever justified?

He certainly has a drinking-problem: I once saw him drink a whole bottle of whisky. (Full stop and semicolon also possible.)

There is one good thing about skinheads (剃光頭的人) and punks: they absolutely hate each other.

3. Lists

Colons can also be used to introduce lists or enumerations, often using the following phrases: as follows, for example, for instance, such as, and the following.

In the world described in Orwell's Animal Farm two basic principles become all-important: (i) all animals are equal; (ii) some animals are more equal than others.

Our solar system consists of the following planets （行星）: Mercury（水星）, Venus（金星）, Earth, Mars（火星）, Jupiter（木星）, Saturn（土星）, Uranus（天王星）, Neptune（海王星）, and Pluto（冥王星）.

N.B. Try to avoid sentences like the following, where the subject and the verb are separated from the complement:

The ingredients of gunpowder are: saltpeter(硝石), sulphur（硫磺）, and charcoal.

Better would be to remove the colon, or else to rephrase the sentence:

The ingredients of gunpowder are as follows: saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal.

or:

Gunpowder has three ingredients: saltpeter, sulphur, and charcoal.

III. The Comma (,)

1. Defining and Non-defining

Compare the two following sentences (a and b):

a. Pop-stars who earn fortunes should pay higher taxes.

(Defining relative clause---i.e. only those pop-stars who earn fortunes should pay higher taxes.)

b. Pop-stars, who earn fortunes, should pay higher taxes.

(Non-defining relative clause -- i.e. all pop-stars earn fortunes and therefore should pay higher taxes.)

The first sentence refers only to some pop-stars, while the second sentence refers to all pop-stars. Note that in the second sentence there are two commas (not one), to mark the beginning and the end of the clause.

The same principle operates with the words when and where.

Compare the following:

a. The day when JFK was assassinated I was crossing the Atlantic.

b. On November 22, when JFK was assassinated, I was crossing the Atlantic.

c. The town where I was stationed was pretty arid.

d. Quetta, where I was stationed, was a pretty arid place.

Note that a comma is possible in a (after assassinated), but not in c.

The same principle also extends to appositional phrases.

Compare the following:

a. Nietzsche's work The Gay Science was written in 1888.

b. Nietzsche's last work, The Gay Science（豔體詩）, was written in 1888.

c. The famous thinker Michel Foucault has just died.

d. A famous thinker, Michel Foucault, has just died.

e.The Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, has just resigned.

f. Margaret Thatcher, the Prime Minister, has just resigned.

In a the title of the work is defining, i.e. The Gay Science was only one of several works by Nietzsche. In b the title is non-defining, because only one work can be the author's last. In c Michel Foucault is not the only famous thinker; therefore, the name Michel Foucault is defining, and hence no commas. In d A famous thinker and Michel Foucault are one and the same; therefore, Michel Foucault is non-defining, and hence commas. Sentences e and f are non-defining (and therefore with commas), because in Britain there is only one Prime Minister at any one time.

Before we go on, it is impo
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9# 只看作者 回復於：2007-5-21 15:54:00
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方法是很重要的，關鍵還是有意識的多練習。
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10# 只看作者 回復於：2007-5-23 9:52:00
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在掌握方法的基礎上，更多的練習是提高的有效途徑
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12# 只看作者 回復於：2007-5-25 10:42:00
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Thank you very much.
I think that it is beneficial to our research articles.
By the way, your portrait of Kobe Bryant is very nice.
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