Japan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Japan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the country. For other uses, see Japan (disambiguation).
Japan
日本国
Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku

Flag Imperial Seal

Anthem:



Kimigayo (君が代?)

Government Seal:

Paulownia (五七桐, Go-Shichi no Kiri?)

Capital
(and largest city) Tokyo (de facto)
35°41′N 139°46′E / 35.683°N 139.767°E / 35.683; 139.767
Official language(s) None[1]
Recognised regional languages Aynu itak, Eastern Japanese, Western Japanese, Ryukyuan, and several other Japanese dialects
National language Japanese
Ethnic groups 98.5% Japanese, 0.5% Korean, 0.4% Chinese, 0.6% other[2]
Demonym Japanese
Government Unitary parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy
- Emperor Akihito
- Prime Minister Naoto Kan (DPJ)
Legislature National Diet
- Upper House House of Councillors
- Lower House House of Representatives
Formation
- National Foundation Day February 11, 660 BC[3]
- Meiji Constitution November 29, 1890
- Current constitution May 3, 1947
- Treaty of
San Francisco
April 28, 1952
Area
- Total 377,944 km2 [4](61st)
145,925 sq mi
- Water (%) 0.8
Population
- 2010 estimate 127,360,000[5] (10th)
- 2004 census 127,333,002
- Density 337.1/km2 (36th)
873.1/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate
- Total $4.308 trillion[6] (3rd)
- Per capita $33,828[6] (24th)
GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate
- Total $5.390 trillion[6] (3rd)
- Per capita $42,325[6] (17th)
Gini 38.1 (2002)[7]
HDI (2007) 0.884[8] (very high) (11th)
Currency International Symbol ¥ Pronounced (Yen)
Japanese Symbol 円 (or 圓 in Traditional Kanji) Pronounced (En) (JPY)
Time zone JST (UTC+9)
- Summer (DST) not observed (UTC{{{utc_offset_DST}}})
Date formats yyyy-mm-dd
yyyy年m月d日
Era yy年m月d日 (CE−1988)
Drives on the left
ISO 3166 code JP
Internet TLD .jp
Calling code 81
Japan (i /dʒəˈpæn/; Japanese: 日本 Nihon or Nippon, officially 日本国 Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku) is an island nation in East Asia.[9] Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes referred to as the "Land of the Rising Sun".

Japan is an archipelago of 6,852 islands.[10] The four largest islands are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, together accounting for ninety-seven percent of Japan's land area. Most of the islands are mountainous, many volcanic; Japan’s highest peak, Mount Fuji, is a volcano. Japan has the world's tenth-largest population, with over 127 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the de facto capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents.

Archaeological research indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan begins with brief appearances in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from the outside world followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. Since adopting its constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament called the Diet.

A major economic power,[2] Japan has the world's third-largest economy by nominal GDP[11] and by purchasing power parity. It is also the world's fourth largest exporter and fifth largest importer. Although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern and extensive military force in self-defense and peacekeeping roles. It is a developed country with very high living standards (11th highest HDI). After Singapore, Japan has the lowest homicide (including attempted homicide) rate in the world.[12] Japan has the highest life expectancy of any country (according to both the UN and WHO estimates) and the third lowest infant mortality rate.[13][14]

Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Etymology
1.2 Prehistory
1.3 Feudal era
1.4 20th century
2 Geography
2.1 Climate
2.2 Biodiversity
2.3 Environment
3 Politics
3.1 Administrative divisions
3.2 Foreign relations
3.3 Military
4 Economy
4.1 Science and technology
4.2 Infrastructure
5 Demographics
5.1 Urbanization
5.2 Religion
5.3 Languages
5.4 Education
5.5 Health
6 Culture
6.1 Music
6.2 Literature
6.3 Sports
7 See also
8 References
9 External links


History
Main article: History of Japan
Etymology
Main article: Names of Japan
The English word Japan is an exonym. The Japanese names for Japan are Nippon (にっぽん?) listen (help·info) and Nihon (にほん?) listen (help·info). Both names are written using the kanji 日本. The Japanese name Nippon is used for most official purposes, including on Japanese money, postage stamps, and for many international sporting events. Nihon is a more casual term and is the most frequently used in contemporary speech. Japanese people refer to themselves as Nihonjin (日本人?) and to their language as Nihongo (日本語?). Both Nippon and Nihon literally mean "sun's origin" and are often translated as the Land of the Rising Sun. This nomenclature comes from Imperial correspondence with the Chinese Sui Dynasty and refers to Japan's eastward position relative to China. Before Nihon came into official use, Japan was known as Wa (倭?) or Wakoku (倭国?).[15]

The English word for Japan came to the West via early trade routes. The early Mandarin or possibly Wu Chinese (吳語) word for Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu. In modern Shanghainese, a Wu dialect, the pronunciation of characters 日本 'Japan' is Zeppen [zəʔpən]; in Wu, the character 日 has two pronunciations, informal (白讀?) [niʔ] and formal (文讀?) [zəʔ]. (In some southern Wu dialects, 日本 is pronounced [niʔpən], similar to its pronunciation in Japanese.) The old Malay word for Japan, Jepang, was borrowed from a Chinese language, and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the 16th century. It is thought the Portuguese traders were the first to bring the word to Europe. It was first recorded in English in a 1565 letter, spelled Giapan.[16]

Prehistory

An illustrated scroll from the 1100sA Paleolithic culture around 30,000 BC constitutes the first known habitation of Japan. This was followed from around 14,000 BC (the start of the Jōmon period) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture, possibly ancestors of the Ainu, characterized by pit dwelling and rudimentary agriculture.[17] Decorated clay vessels from this period, often with plaited patterns, are some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in the world. The Yayoi period, starting around 500 BC, saw the introduction of new practices like wet-rice farming,[18] a new style of pottery,[19] and metallurgy, brought by migrants from China and Korea.[20]

The Japanese first appear in written history in the Chinese Book of Han. According to the Chinese Records of Three Kingdoms, the most powerful kingdom on the archipelago during the 3rd century was called Yamataikoku. Buddhism was first introduced to Japan from Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, but the subsequent development of Japanese Buddhism was primarily influenced by China.[21] Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class and eventually gained growing acceptance beginning in the Asuka period.[22]

The Nara period of the 8th century marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state, centered on an imperial court in the city of Heijō-kyō (modern Nara). In addition to the continuing adoption of Chinese administrative practices, the Nara period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent written literature with the completion of the massive chronicles Kojiki (712) and Nihon Shoki (720).[23] The smallpox epidemic of 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population.[24] In 784, Emperor Kammu moved the capital from Nara to Nagaoka-kyō for a ten-year period before relocating it to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto) in 794, where it remained for more than a millennium.[25] This marked the beginning of the Heian period, during which time a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged, noted for its art, poetry and literature. Lady Murasaki's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics of Japan's national anthem Kimigayo were written during this time.[26]

Feudal era
Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the rival Taira clan, Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed Shogun and established a base of power in Kamakura. After Yoritomo's death, the Hōjō clan came to rule as regents for the shoguns. Zen Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class.[27] The Kamakura shogunate repelled Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, aided by a storm that the Japanese interpreted as a kamikaze or Divine Wind. The Kamakura shogunate was eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo, who was soon himself defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336.[28] The succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (daimyo), and a civil war (the Ōnin War) began in 1467 and opened the century-long Sengoku period (“Warring States”).[29]


The Meiji EmperorDuring the 16th century, traders and Jesuit missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West (Nanban trade). Oda Nobunaga conquered numerous other daimyo by using European technology and firearms, and had almost unified the nation when he was assassinated in 1582. Toyotomi Hideyoshi succeeded Nobunaga and united the nation in 1590. Hideyoshi invaded Korea twice, but following several defeats by Korean and Ming Chinese forces and Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were withdrawn in 1598.[30]

Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori, using his position to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed shōgun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo).[31] The Tokugawa shogunate enacted a variety of measures such as Buke shohatto to control the autonomous daimyo.[32] In 1639, the shogunate began the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period.[33] The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued during this period through contact with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to kokugaku ("national studies"), the study of Japan by the Japanese themselves.[34] According to one authority, there were at least 130 famines during the Edo period, of which 21 were particularly serious.[35]

On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the outside world with the Convention of Kanagawa. Subsequent similar treaties with Western countries in the Bakumatsu period brought Japan into economic and political crises. The resignation of the shogunate led to the Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state unified under the name of the Emperor (Meiji Restoration).[36] Adopting Western political, judicial and military institutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introduced the Meiji Constitution, and assembled the Imperial Diet. The Meiji Restoration transformed the Empire of Japan into an industrialized world power that embarked on a number of military conflicts to expand the nation's sphere of influence. After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea, and the southern half of Sakhalin.[37] Japan's population grew from 35 million in 1873 to 70 million in 1935.[38]

20th century
The early 20th century saw a brief period of "Taishō democracy" overshadowed by increasing expansionism and militarization. World War I enabled Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to widen its influence and territorial holdings. Japan continued its expansionist policy by occupying Manchuria in 1931. As a result of international condemnation of this occupation, Japan resigned from the League of Nations two years later. In 1935, local assemblies under Japanese control were established in Taiwan.[39] In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, and in 1940 signed the Tripartite Pact to join the Axis Powers.[40] In 1941, Japan negotiated a neutrality pact with the Soviet Union.[41]


Present-day TokyoIn 1937, the Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). In 1940, the Empire then invaded French Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan.[42] On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbor and declared war on the United States, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. This act brought the US into World War II and, on December 8, those three countries declared war on Japan.[43][44] After the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender on August 15 (Victory over Japan Day).[45]

The war cost Japan and the other countries of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere millions of lives and left much of the nation's industry and infrastructure destroyed. The Allied powers (led by the US) repatriated millions of ethnic Japanese from colonies and military camps throughout Asia.[46] The International Military Tribunal for the Far East was convened by the Allies on May 3, 1946 to prosecute some Japanese leaders for war crimes. However, all members of the bacteriological research units and members of the imperial family involved in the conduct of the war were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by the Supreme Allied Commander despite calls for trials for both groups.[47]

In 1947, Japan adopted a new pacifist constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices. The Allied occupation ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952[48] and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. Japan later achieved spectacular growth to become the second-largest economy in the world, with an annual growth rate averaging 10 percent for four decades. This ended in the mid-1990s when Japan suffered a major recession. Positive growth in the early 21st century has signaled a gradual recovery.[49]

Geography
Main articles: Geography of Japan and Geology of Japan

Topographic mapJapan has a total of 6,852 islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. The country, including all of the islands it controls, lies between latitudes 24° and 46°N, and longitudes 122° and 146°E. The main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshū, Shikoku and Kyūshū. The Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa, are a chain of islands south of Kyushū. Together they are often known as the Japanese Archipelago.[50]

About 70 to 80 percent of Japan is forested, mountainous, and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use.[2][51] This is because of the generally steep elevations, climate and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground and heavy rain. As a result, the habitable zones, mainly located in coastal areas, have extremely high population densities. Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world.[52]

The islands of Japan are located in a volcanic zone on the Pacific Ring of Fire. They are primarily the result of large oceanic movements occurring over hundreds of millions of years from the mid-Silurian to the Pleistocene as a result of the subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the continental Amurian Plate and Okinawa Plate to the south, and subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Okhotsk Plate to the north. Japan has 108 active volcanoes. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times each century.[53] The 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed over 140,000 people.[54] The most recent major quakes are the 2004 Chūetsu earthquake and the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. Hot springs are numerous and have been developed as resorts.[55] Japan was originally attached to eastern coast of the Eurasian continent. The subducting plates, being deeper than the Eurasian plate, pulled Japan eastward, opening the Sea of Japan around 15 million years ago.[56] The Strait of Tartary and the Korea Strait opened much later.[57]

Climate
Main article: Climate of Japan

Okinawa has a subtropical climate with warm winters and hot summers.The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones: Hokkaido, Sea of Japan, Central Highland, Seto Inland Sea, Pacific Ocean, and Ryukyu Islands. The northernmost zone, Hokkaido, has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter. In the Sea of Japan zone on Honshū's west coast, the northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, because of the foehn wind phenomenon. The Central Highland is a typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light. The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year. The Pacific east coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind. The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Typhoons are common.[58]

The highest temperature ever measured in Japan—40.9 °C (105.6 °F)—was recorded on August 16, 2007.[59] The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front gradually works its way north until reaching Hokkaido in late July. In most of Honshū, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.[60]

Biodiversity
See also: Wildlife of Japan
Japan has nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.[61]

Environment
Main article: Environmental issues in Japan

Ikata Nuclear Power PlantIn the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations. As an inevitable consequence, environmental pollution occurred in the 1950s and 1960s. Responding to rising concern over the problem, the government introduced several environmental protection laws in 1970.[62] The oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy due to Japan's lack of natural resources.[63] Current priority environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, toxics), waste management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for environmental conservation.[64]

Japan is one of the world's leaders in the development of new environment-friendly technologies. Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel economy and lowest emissions.[65] This is due to the use of advanced hybrid systems, biofuels, lighter-weight material, and specialized engineering techniques.[66] Japan is ranked 20th best in the world in the 2010 Environmental Performance Index.[67]

As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol, and host of the 1997 conference which created it, Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change. The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning in government offices. Japan is preparing to force industry to make cuts in greenhouse gases, taking the lead in a country struggling to meet its Kyoto Protocol obligations.[68]

Politics
Main articles: Politics of Japan and Government of Japan

Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko. Japan has the oldest continuous hereditary monarchy.[69]Japan is a constitutional monarchy where the power of the Emperor is very limited. As a ceremonial figurehead, he is defined by the constitution as "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people". Power is held chiefly by the Prime Minister of Japan and other elected members of the Diet, while sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people.[70] The Emperor acts as the head of state on diplomatic occasions. Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan; Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan, stands as next in line to the throne.

Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament. The Diet consists of a House of Representatives with 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and a House of Councillors of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal suffrage for adults over 20 years of age,[2] with a secret ballot for all elected offices.[70] In 2009, the social liberal Democratic Party of Japan took power after 54 years of the liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party's rule.[71]

The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government. The Prime Minister is appointed by the Emperor after being designated by the Diet from among its members, and must enjoy the confidence of the House of Representatives to remain in office. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet (the literal translation of his Japanese title is "Prime Minister of the Cabinet") and appoints and dismisses the Ministers of State, a majority of whom must be Diet members. Naoto Kan was designated by the Diet to replace Yukio Hatoyama as the Prime Minister of Japan on June 2, 2010.[72] Although the Prime Minister is formally appointed by the Emperor, the Constitution of Japan explicitly requires the Emperor to appoint whoever is designated by the Diet. Emperor Akihito formally appointed Kan as the country's 94th Prime Minister on June 8.[73]

Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki.[74] However, since the late 19th century, the judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably Germany. For example, in 1896, the Japanese government established a civil code based on a draft of the German civil code. With post-World War II modifications, the code remains in effect in present-day Japan.[75] Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature with the rubber stamp approval of the Emperor. The Constitution requires that the Emperor promulgates legislation passed by the Diet, without specifically giving him the power to oppose the passing of the legislation.[70] Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts.[76] The main body of Japanese statutory law is a collection called the Six Codes.[77]

Administrative divisions
Main articles: Prefectures of Japan, Cities of Japan, Towns of Japan, Villages of Japan, and List of Japanese cities by population
Japan consists of forty-seven prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor, legislature and administrative bureaucracy. Each prefecture is further divided into cities, towns and villages.[78] The nation is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions and is expected to cut administrative costs.[79]


Map of the prefectures of Japan in ISO 3166-2:JP order and the regions of JapanHokkaido
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Hokkaido
Tōhoku
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Aomori
3. Iwate
4. Miyagi
5. Akita
6. Yamagata
7. Fukushima
Kantō
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8. Ibaraki
9. Tochigi
10. Gunma
11. Saitama
12. Chiba
13. Tokyo
14. Kanagawa
Chūbu
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

15. Niigata
16. Toyama
17. Ishikawa
18. Fukui
19. Yamanashi
20. Nagano
21. Gifu
22. Shizuoka
23. Aichi

Kansai
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

24. Mie
25. Shiga
26. Kyoto
27. Osaka
28. Hyōgo
29. Nara
30. Wakayama
Chūgoku
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

31. Tottori
32. Shimane
33. Okayama
34. Hiroshima
35. Yamaguchi
Shikoku
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

36. Tokushima
37. Kagawa
38. Ehime
39. Kōchi
Kyūshū and Okinawa
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

40. Fukuoka
41. Saga
42. Nagasaki
43. Kumamoto
44. Ōita
45. Miyazaki
46. Kagoshima
47. Okinawa


Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Japan
Japan is a member of the G8, APEC, and "ASEAN Plus Three", and is a participant in the East Asia Summit. Japan signed a security pact with Australia in March 2007[80] and with India in October 2008.[81] It is the world's third largest donor of official development assistance after the United States and France, donating US$9.48 billion in 2009.[82] Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the Iraq War but subsequently withdrew its forces.[83] The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force is a regular participant in RIMPAC maritime exercises.[84]


JDS Kongō (DDG-173) launching a Standard Missile 3 anti-ballistic missileJapan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors: with Russia over the South Kuril Islands, with South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks, with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands, and with China over the EEZ around Okinotorishima.[85] Japan also faces an ongoing dispute with North Korea over the latter's abduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weapons and missile program (see also Six-party talks).[86]

Military
Main articles: Japan Self-Defense Forces and Ministry of Defense (Japan)
Japan maintains one of the largest military budgets of any country in the world.[87] Japan has close economic and military relations with the United States, with the US-Japan security alliance serving as the cornerstone of the nation's foreign policy.[88] A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan has served as a non-permanent Security Council member for a total of 19 years, most recently for 2009 and 2010. It is also one of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership in the Security Council.[89]

Japan's military is restricted by Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force as a means of settling international disputes. Japan's military is governed by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). The forces have been recently used in peacekeeping operations; the deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of its military since World War II.[83] Nippon Keidanren has called on the government to lift the ban on arms exports so that Japan can join multinational projects such as the Joint Strike Fighter.[90]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Japan

The Tokyo Stock ExchangeFrom 1868, the Meiji period launched economic expansion.[91] Meiji rulers embraced the concept of a market economy and adopted British and North American forms of free enterprise capitalism. Japanese studied overseas and Western scholars were hired to teach in Japan. Many of today's enterprises were founded at the time, and Japan emerged as the most developed nation in Asia.[92]

The period of overall real economic growth from the 1960s to the 1980s has been called a "Japanese miracle": it averaged 7.5 percent in the 1960s and 1970s, and 3.2 percent in the 1980s and early 1990s.[93] Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s during what the Japanese call the Lost Decade, largely because of the after-effects of the Japanese asset price bubble and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth met with little success and were further hampered by the global slowdown in 2000.[2] The economy showed strong signs of recovery after 2005. GDP growth for that year was 2.8 percent, with an annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5 percent, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the same period.[94]

As of 2010[update], Japan is the third largest national economy in the world,[95] after the United States and China, in terms of both nominal GDP (around US$5 trillion)[95] and purchasing power parity.[96] As of 2009[update] Japan's public debt was 193 percent of its annual gross domestic product.[97] The service sector accounts for three quarters of the gross domestic product. Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, telecommunications and construction are all major industries.[98] Japan has a large industrial capacity, and is home to some of the largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronic equipment, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemicals, textiles, and processed foods.[2] Agricultural businesses in Japan often utilize a system of terrace farming and crop yields are high; 13 percent of Japan's land is cultivated. Japan accounts for nearly 15 percent of the global fish catch, second only to China.[2] Japan's agricultural sector is protected at high cost.[99]

As of 2001, Japan's shrinking labor force consisted of some 67 million workers.[100] Japan has a low unemployment rate of around 4 percent. Almost one in six Japanese, or 20 million people, lived in poverty in 2007.[101] Japan's housing market is characterized by limited land supply in urban areas, particularly in Tokyo. More than half of all Japanese live in suburbs or more rural areas, where detached houses are the dominant housing type.[102] Japan's GDP per hour worked is the world's 19th highest as of 2007.[103]


Toyota, one of the world's largest automakers. Japan is the second-largest producer of automobiles in the world.[104]Japan ranks 12th of 178 countries in the 2008 Ease of Doing Business Index and has one of the smallest tax revenues of the developed world. The Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features. Keiretsu enterprises are influential. Lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement are relatively common in the Japanese work environment.[105][106] Japanese companies are known for management methods like "The Toyota Way", and shareholder activism is rare.[107] Japan's business culture has many indigenous concepts such as the nemawashi, the nenko system, the salaryman, and the office lady. Recently, Japan has moved away from some of these norms.[108][109] In the Index of Economic Freedom, Japan is the fifth most laissez-faire of 30 Asian countries.[110]

Japan's exports amounted to $US4,210 per capita in 2005. Japan's main export markets are China (18.88 percent), the United States (16.42 percent), South Korea (8.13 percent), Taiwan (6.27 percent) and Hong Kong (5.49 percent) as of 2009. Japan's main exports are transportation equipment, motor vehicles, electronics, electrical machinery and chemicals.[2] Japan's main import markets as of 2009 are China (22.2 percent), the US (10.96 percent), Australia (6.29 percent), Saudi Arabia (5.29 percent), UAE (4.12 percent), South Korea (3.98 percent) and Indonesia (3.95 percent). Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its industries.[111] By market share measures, domestic markets are the least open of any OECD country.[106] Junichiro Koizumi's administration began some pro-competition reforms, and foreign investment in Japan has soared.[112]

Some of the largest enterprises in Japan include Toyota, Nintendo, NTT DoCoMo, Canon, Honda, Takeda Pharmaceutical, Sony, Panasonic, Toshiba, Sharp, Nippon Steel, Nippon Oil, Japan Tobacco, Tepco, Mitsubishi, 711,[113] Hitachi, Nissan, Æon, Toyota Tsusho, Fujitsu, and Nippon Telegraph and Telephone. It is home to some of the world's largest banks, and the Tokyo Stock Exchange (known for its Nikkei 225 and Topix indices) stands as the second largest in the world by market capitalization.[114] Japan is home to 326 companies from the Forbes Global 2000 or 16.3 percent (as of 2006).[115]

Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Japan
Japan is a leading nation in scientific research, particularly technology, machinery and biomedical research. Nearly 700,000 researchers share a US$130 billion research and development budget, the third largest in the world.[116] Japan is a world leader in fundamental scientific research, having produced fifteen Nobel laureates in either physics, chemistry or medicine,[117] three Fields medalists [118] and one Gauss Prize laureate.[119] Some of Japan's more prominent technological contributions are found in the fields of electronics, automobiles, machinery, earthquake engineering, industrial robotics, optics, chemicals, semiconductors and metals. Japan leads the world in robotics production and use, possessing more than half (402,200 of 742,500) of the world's industrial robots used for manufacturing.[120] It produced QRIO, ASIMO and AIBO. Japan is also the world's largest producer of automobiles.[121]

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is Japan's space agency; it conducts space and planetary research, aviation research, and development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the International Space Station: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) was added to the International Space Station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008.[122] It has plans in space exploration, such as launching a space probe to Venus, Akatsuki, in 2010,[123][124] developing the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter to be launched in 2013,[125][126] and building a moon base by 2030.[127] On September 14, 2007, it launched lunar orbit explorer "SELENE" (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) on an H-IIA (Model H2A2022) carrier rocket from Tanegashima Space Center. SELENE is also known as Kaguya, the lunar princess of the ancient folktale The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter.[128] Kaguya is the largest lunar probe mission since the Apollo program. Its mission is to gather data on the moon's origin and evolution. It entered into a lunar orbit on October 4,[129][130] flying in a lunar orbit at an altitude of about 100 km (62 mi).[131]

Infrastructure
Main articles: Energy in Japan and Transport in Japan

Shinkansen or Bullet trains are a popular form of transport in Japan.[132]As of 2008, 46.4 percent of energy in Japan is produced from petroleum, 21.4 percent from coal, and 16.7 percent from natural gas, 9.7 percent from nuclear power, and 2.9 percent from hydro power. Nuclear power produces 22.5 percent of Japan's electricity.[133]

Japan's road spending has been extensive.[134] Its 1.2 million kilometers of paved road are the main means of transportation.[135] A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities and is operated by toll-collecting enterprises. New and used cars are inexpensive; car ownership fees and fuel levies are used to promote energy efficiency. However, at just 50 percent of all distance traveled, car usage is the lowest of all G8 countries.[136]

Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; major companies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu Corporation, Seibu Railway and Keio Corporation. Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities. Japanese trains are known for their punctuality.[137] There are 173 airports in Japan, and flying is a popular way to travel between cities. The largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport, is Asia's second-busiest airport.[138] The largest international gateways are Narita International Airport, Kansai International Airport and Chūbu Centrair International Airport.[139] The largest ports include Nagoya Port.[140]

Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Japan, Japanese people, Aging of Japan, and Racial issues in Japan

Greater Tokyo Area is the world's most populous metropolitan area with about 35 million peopleJapan's population is estimated at around 127.3 million.[2] Japanese society is linguistically and culturally homogeneous with small populations of foreign workers.[141] Zainichi Koreans,[142] Zainichi Chinese, Filipinos, Japanese Brazilians,[143] and Japanese Peruvians are among the small minority groups resident in Japan.[144] In 2003, there were about 136,000 Western expatriates in Japan.[145] The most dominant native ethnic group is the Yamato people; primary minority groups include the indigenous Ainu[146] and Ryukyuan, as well as social minority groups like the burakumin.[147]

Japan has one of the highest life expectancy rates in the world, at 81.25 years of age as of 2006.[148] The Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a post-war baby boom followed by a decrease in births in the latter part of the 20th century. In 2004, about 19.5 percent of the population was over the age of 65.[149] The changes in demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in workforce population and increases in the cost of social security benefits such as the public pension plan. Many Japanese youth are increasingly preferring not to marry or have families as adults.[150] Japan's population is expected to drop to 100 million by 2050 and to 64 million by 2100.[149] Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.[150] Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.[151][152] According to the UNHCR, in 2007 Japan accepted just 41 refugees for resettlement, while the US took in 50,000.[153]

Japan suffers from a high suicide rate.[154][155] In 2009, the number of suicides exceeded 30,000 for the twelfth straight year.[156] Suicide is the leading cause of death for people under 30.[157]

Urbanization
Largest cities of Japan view · talk · edit
Core City Prefecture Population Core City Prefecture Population
1 Tokyo Tokyo 8,483,050
Tokyo

Osaka 8 Fukuoka Fukuoka 1,450,149
2 Yokohama Kanagawa 3,579,133 9 Kawasaki Kanagawa 1,327,009
3 Osaka Osaka 2,628,776 10 Saitama Saitama 1,176,269
4 Nagoya Aichi 2,215,031 11 Hiroshima Hiroshima 1,159,391
5 Sapporo Hokkaido 1,880,875 12 Sendai Miyagi 1,028,214
6 Kobe Hyōgo 1,525,389 13 Kitakyushu Fukuoka 993,483
7 Kyoto Kyoto 1,465,917 14 Chiba Chiba 924,353

Source: 2005 Census

Religion
Main article: Religion in Japan

Shinto Itsukushima Shrine UNESCO World Heritage SiteThe highest estimates suggest that 84–96 percent of the Japanese population are Buddhists or Shintoists, including a large number of believers in a syncretism of both religions.[2][158] However, these estimates are based on people associated with a temple, rather than the number of people truly following the religion.[159] Professor Robert Kisala (Nanzan University) suggests that only 30 percent of the population identify themselves as belonging to a religion.[160] Religion in Japan tends to be syncretic in nature, resulting in a variety of practices, such as parents and children celebrating Shinto rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a Christian church, and funerals being held at Buddhist temples. According to the CIA World Fact Book, two percent of Japanese are Christian (2.4 million).[2] In addition, since the mid-19th century, numerous religious sects (Shinshūkyō) have emerged in Japan.[161]

Languages
Main article: Japanese language
More than 99 percent of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.[2] It is an agglutinative language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary indicating the relative status of speaker and listener. Japanese writing uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on simplified Chinese characters), as well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals.[162]

Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages, also part of the Japonic language family, are spoken in Okinawa; however, few children learn these languages.[163] The Ainu language, which is unrelated to Japanese or any other known language, is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in Hokkaido.[164] Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and English.[165]

Education
Main articles: Education in Japan and Health care in Japan

The Yasuda Auditorium of University of TokyoPrimary schools, secondary schools and universities were introduced into Japan in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restoration.[166] Since 1947, compulsory education in Japan comprises elementary school and middle school, which together last for nine years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and, according to the MEXT, as of 2005 about 75.9 percent of high school graduates attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other higher education institution.[167]

Japan's education system is very competitive,[168] especially for entrance to institutions of higher education. The two top-ranking universities in Japan are the University of Tokyo and Kyoto University.[169][170] The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as the sixth best in the world.[171]

Health
In Japan, health care services are provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance.[172] Patients are free to select physicians or facilities of their choice.[173]

Culture

The Temple of the Golden Pavilion (Kinkaku-ji)Main articles: Culture of Japan, Japanese folklore, Japanese aesthetics, Japanese ceramics, Japanese art, and Japanese architecture
Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original Jōmon arts to its contemporary culture, which combines influences from Asia, Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e, dolls, lacquerware, pottery), performances (bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), traditions (games, tea ceremony, Budō, architecture, gardens, swords) and cuisine. The fusion of traditional woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of manga, a typically Japanese comic book format that is now popular within and outside Japan.[174] Manga-influenced animation for television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have been popular since the 1980s.[175]

Music
Main article: Music of Japan
Japanese music is eclectic, borrowing instruments, scales and styles from neighboring cultures. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the 9th and 10th centuries. The accompanied recitative of the Noh drama dates from the 14th century and the popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, from the sixteenth.[176] Western classical music, introduced in the late 19th century, now forms an integral part of the culture. Post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European modern music, which has led to the evolution of popular band music called J-pop.[177] Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity. A November 1993 survey by the Cultural Affairs Agency found that more Japanese had sung karaoke that year than had participated in traditional cultural pursuits such as flower arranging (ikebana) or tea ceremonies.[178]


A scene from The Tale of GenjiLiterature
Main article: Japanese literature
The earliest works of Japanese literature include two history books, the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki, and the 8th century poetry book Man'yōshū, all written in Chinese characters.[179] In the early days of the Heian period, the system of transcription known as kana (Hiragana and Katakana) was created as phonograms. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.[180] An account of Heian court life is given by The Pillow Book written by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki is often described as the world's first novel.[181][182]

During the Edo period, literature became not so much the field of the samurai aristocracy as that of the chōnin, the ordinary people. Yomihon, for example, became popular and reveals this profound change in the readership and authorship.[180] The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms, during which Japanese literature integrated Western influences. Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Yasunari Kawabata, Yukio Mishima and, more recently, Haruki Murakami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors—Yasunari Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburo Oe (1994).[180]

Sports
Main article: Sport in Japan

Sumo wrestlers competing in TokyoTraditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport.[183] Martial arts such as judo, karate and modern kendō are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country. After the Meiji Restoration, many Western sports were introduced in Japan and began to spread through the education system.[184] Japan hosted the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964. Japan has hosted the Winter Olympics twice: Nagano in 1998 and Sapporo in 1972.[185]

The professional baseball league in Japan was established in 1936.[186] Today baseball is the most popular spectator sport in the country. One of the most famous Japanese baseball players is Ichiro Suzuki, who now plays for the Seattle Mariners.[187] Sadaharu Oh was well-known outside Japan, having hit more home runs during his career in Japan than Hank Aaron did in the US.[188] Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992, association football (soccer) has also gained a wide following.[189] Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004 and co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.[190] Japan has one of the most successful soccer teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup three times.[191]

Golf is also popular in Japan,[192] as are forms of auto racing, such as the Super GT sports car series and Formula Nippon formula racing.[193] Twin Ring Motegi was completed in 1997 by Honda in order to bring IndyCar racing to Japan.[194]

See also
Japan portal
Outline of Japan
[show] Articles Related to Japan

[show]v · d · e Japan topics

Basic topics · Alphabetical index of topics

History Paleolithic · Jōmon · Yayoi · Kofun · Nara · Heian · Kamakura · Muromachi · Azuchi–Momoyama · Edo · Meiji · Taishō · Shōwa · Heisei · Economic history · Military history (Imperial Army · Imperial Navy · Naval history)

Government
and politics Emperor (list) · Prime Minister (list) · Cabinet · Ministries · Diet · House of Councillors · House of Representatives · Elections · Political parties · Judiciary · Fiscal policy · Foreign policy · Foreign relations · Human rights (LGBT rights) · Self-Defense Force (Air · Ground · Maritime)

Geography Environment · Regions · Prefectures · Cities · Districts · Towns · Villages · Addresses · Islands · Lakes · Rivers · Extreme points

Economy Primary sector · Manufacturing · Labor · Communications · Transport · Currency · Central bank · Solar power · International rankings

Culture Anime / Manga · Architecture · Art · Bonsai · Cinema · Cuisine · Festivals · Gardens · Geisha · Games · Ikebana · Literature · Martial arts · Music · Onsen / Sentō · Tea ceremony · Television · Theatre

Society Aesthetics · Demographics · Crime · Education · Etiquette · Gambling · Housing · Language · Law · Mythology · Names · Religion · Smoking · Sport · Sexuality

Portal

[show] Geographic locale

[show]v · d · eRegions and administrative divisions of Japan

Regions Hokkaido · Tōhoku · Kantō · Chūbu (Hokuriku · Kōshin'etsu · Shin'etsu · Tōkai) · Kansai · Chūgoku (San'in • San'yō) · Shikoku · Kyushu (Ryukyu · Northern Kyushu)

Prefectures Hokkaido Hokkaido

Tōhoku Akita · Aomori · Fukushima · Iwate · Miyagi · Yamagata

Kantō Chiba · Gunma · Ibaraki · Kanagawa · Saitama · Tochigi · Tokyo

Chūbu Aichi · Fukui · Gifu · Ishikawa · Nagano · Niigata · Shizuoka · Toyama · Yamanashi

Kansai Hyōgo · Kyoto · Mie · Nara · Osaka · Shiga · Wakayama

Chūgoku Hiroshima · Okayama · Shimane · Tottori · Yamaguchi

Shikoku Ehime · Kagawa · Kōchi · Tokushima

Kyushu Kyushu (Mainland): Fukuoka · Kagoshima · Kumamoto · Miyazaki · Nagasaki · Ōita · Saga
Ryukyu Islands: Okinawa


[show]v · d · eCountries and territories of East Asia

People's Republic of China (SAR: Hong Kong · Macau) · Japan · Mongolia · South Korea · North Korea · Republic of China (Taiwan)

Sometimes included: Vietnam · Russian Far East



[show] International membership

[show]v · d · eMajor non-NATO allies of the United States

Argentina · Australia · Bahrain · Egypt · Israel · Japan · Jordan · Kuwait · Morocco · New Zealand · Pakistan · Philippines · South Korea · Thailand
Map showing the Major non-NATO allies

[show]v · d · eEast Asia Summit (EAS)

First · Second · Third · Fourth · Fifth · Sixth

Australia
Brunei
China
Cambodia
India
Indonesia
Japan
Laos
Malaysia
Myanmar
New Zealand
Philippines
Russia
Singapore
South Korea
Thailand
Vietnam
United States



[show]v · d · eG8 Leaders

Harper · Sarkozy · Merkel · Berlusconi · Kan · Medvedev · Cameron · Obama · Barroso


[show]v · d · eGroup of Twenty (G-20)

Argentina · Australia · Brazil · Canada · China · European Union · France · Germany · India · Indonesia · Italy
Japan · Mexico · Russia · Saudi Arabia · South Africa · South Korea · Turkey · United Kingdom · United States


[show]v · d · eMonarchies

List of current sovereign monarchs · List of current constituent monarchs

By continent Africa · Americas · Asia · Europe · Oceania

By country Antigua and Barbuda · Australia · Andorra · The Bahamas · Bahrain · Barbados · Belize · Belgium · Bhutan · Brunei · Cambodia · Canada · Denmark · Grenada · Jamaica · Japan · Jordan · Kuwait · Liechtenstein · Lesotho · Luxembourg · Malaysia · Monaco · Morocco · Netherlands · New Zealand · Norway · Oman · Papua New Guinea · Qatar · Spain · Saint Kitts and Nevis · Saint Lucia · Saint Vincent and the Grenadines · Saudi Arabia · Solomon Islands · Swaziland · Sweden · Thailand · Tonga · Tuvalu · United Arab Emirates · United Kingdom · Vatican City

By type Absolute · Constitutional · Elective · Hereditary · Diarchy · Federal

Italics indicate Commonwealth realms, which each share the same person as head of state.






References
^ "法制執務コラム集「法律と国語・日本語」". Legislative Bureau of the House of Councillors. http://houseikyoku.sangiin.go.jp/column/column068.htm. Retrieved 19 January 2009.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "World Factbook: Japan". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
^ According to legend, Japan was founded on this date by Emperor Jimmu, the first emperor of Japan.
^ "Japan Statistical Yearbook 2010". Statistics Bureau. as of October 1, 2008. p. 17. http://www.stat.go.jp/data/nenkan/pdf/yhyou01.pdf. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
^ "Official Japan Statistics Bureau estimate". Statistics Bureau. http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/jinsui/tsuki/index.htm. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
^ a b c d "Japan". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2010&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=158&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=&pr.x=48&pr.y=16. Retrieved 5 January 2011.
^ "World Factbook: Gini Index". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
^ "Human Development Report 2010". United Nations. 2010. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
^ "Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications". United Nations Statistics Division. 1 April 2010. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#asia. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
^ "Facts and Figures of Japan 2007 01: Land". Foreign Press Center Japan. http://fpcj.jp/old/e/mres/publication/ff/pdf_07/01_land.pdf. Retrieved 4 July 2007.
^ Inman, James (21 January 2011). "China confirmed as World's Second Largest Economy". The Guardian'. http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2011/jan/21/china-confirmed-worlds-second-largest-economy. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
^ "Ninth United Nations survey of crime trends and operations of criminal justice systems" (PDF). United Nations Office on drugs and crime. pp. 1–9. http://www.unodc.org/pdf/research/9th_survey/CTS9ByIndicatorExtract.pdf. Retrieved 1 December 2006.
^ "WHO: Life expectancy in Israel among highest in the world". Haaretz. May 2009. http://www.haaretz.com/news/who-life-expectancy-in-israel-among-highest-in-the-world-1.276618. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
^ "Table A.17". United Nations World Population Prospects, 2006 revision. UN. http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/WPP2006_Highlights_rev.pdf. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
^ Piggott, Joan R. (1997). The emergence of Japanese kingship. Stanford University Press. pp. 143–144. ISBN 0-804-72832-1.
^ Mancall, Peter C. (2006). "Of the Ilande of Giapan, 1565". Travel narratives from the age of discovery: an anthology. Oxford University Press. pp. 156–157.
^ Travis, John. "Jomon Genes". University of Pittsburgh. http://www.pitt.edu/~annj/courses/notes/jomon_genes.html. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
^ "Road of rice plant". National Science Museum of Japan. http://www.kahaku.go.jp/special/past/japanese/ipix/5/5-25.html. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
^ "Kofun Period". Metropolitan Museum of Art. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kofu/hd_kofu.htm. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
^ "Yayoi Culture". Metropolitan Museum of Art. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/yayo/hd_yayo.htm. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
^ Brown, Delmer M., ed (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–149.
^ Beasley, William Gerald (1999). The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan. University of California Press. p. 42. ISBN 0520225600.
^ Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell. pp. 64–79. ISBN 978-1405123594.
^ Hays, J.N. (2005). Epidemics and pandemics: their impacts on human history. ABC-CLIO. p. 31. ISBN 1851096582.
^ Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell. pp. 79–87. ISBN 978-1405123594.
^ Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell. pp. 122–123. ISBN 978-1405123594.
^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 106–112. ISBN 1405123591.
^ Sanson, George (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Stanford University Press. p. 42. ISBN 0-8047-0525-9.
^ Sanson, George (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Stanford University Press. p. 217. ISBN 0-8047-0525-9.
^ Turnbull, Stephen (2002). Samurai Invasion: Japan's Korean War. Cassel. p. 227. ISBN 978-0304359486.
^ Turnbull, Stephen (2010). Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Osprey Publishing. p. 61. ISBN 9781846039607.
^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 142–143. ISBN 1405123591.
^ Toby, Ronald P. (1977). "Reopening the Question of Sakoku: Diplomacy in the Legitimation of the Tokugawa Bakufu". Journal of Japanese Studies 3 (2): 323–363.
^ Ohtsu, M. (1999). "Japanese National Values and Confuciansim". Japanese Economy 27 (2): 45–59.
^ Robb, Peter; Sugihara, Kaoru; Haruka Yanagisawa (1996). Local agrarian societies in colonial India: Japanese perspectives. Curzon Press. p. 312.
^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 289–296. ISBN 1405123591.
^ Matsusaka, Y. Tak (2009). "The Japanese Empire". In Tsutsui, William M.. Companion to Japanese History. Blackwell. pp. 224–241. ISBN 9781505116909.
^ Hiroshi, Shimizu; Hitoshi, Hirakawa (1999). Japan and Singapore in the world economy : Japan's economic advance into Singapore, 1870 – 1965. Routledge. p. 17. ISBN 9780415192361.
^ Rigger, Shelley (1999). Politics in Taiwan. Routledge. p. 36. ISBN 0415172098.
^ "The Axis Alliance". iBiblio. http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/pre-war/361125a.html#3. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. p. 442. ISBN 1405123591.
^ Worth, Roland H., Jr. (1995). No Choice But War: the United States Embargo Against Japan and the Eruption of War in the Pacific. McFarland. pp. 56, 86. ISBN 0-7864-0141-9.
^ "インドネシア独立運動と日本とスカルノ（２）". 馬 樹禮. 産経新聞社. April 2005. http://www.sankei.co.jp/seiron/koukoku/2005/0504/ronbun3-2.html. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
^ "The Kingdom of the Netherlands Declares War with Japan". iBiblio. http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1941/411208c.html. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
^ Pape, Robert A. (1993). "Why Japan Surrendered". International Security 18 (2): 154–201.
^ Watt, Lori (2010). When Empire Comes Home: Repatriation and Reintegration in Postwar Japan. Harvard University Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 9780674055988.
^ Thomas, J.E. (1996). Modern Japan. Longman. pp. 284–287. ISBN 0582259622.
^ Coleman, Joseph (6 March 2006). "'52 coup plot bid to rearm Japan: CIA". The Japan Times. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070306f3.html. Retrieved 3 April 2006.
^ "Japan scraps zero interest rates". BBC News Online. 14 July 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/5178822.stm. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
^ McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan. Macmillan. pp. 8–11. ISBN 0333710022.
^ "Japan". US Department of State. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/4142.htm. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "World Population Prospects". UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. http://esa.un.org/unpp/. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
^ "Tectonics and Volcanoes of Japan". Oregon State University. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070204064754/http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/north_asia/japan_tec.html. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
^ James, C.D. (2002). "The 1923 Tokyo Earthquake and Fire". University of California Berkeley. http://nisee.berkeley.edu/kanto/tokyo1923.pdf. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ Nakata, Hiroko (21 January 2008). "Japan's hot springs part of social, geologic, historic fabric". The Japan Times. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20080122i1.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ Barnes, Gina L. (2003). "Origins of the Japanese Islands: The New “Big Picture”". University of Durham. http://shinku.nichibun.ac.jp/jpub/pdf/jr/IJ1501.pdf. Retrieved 11 August 2009.
^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. p. 14. ISBN 1405123591.
^ Karan, Pradyumna Prasad; Gilbreath, Dick (2005). Japan in the 21st century. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 18–21, 41. ISBN 0813123429.
^ "Gifu Prefecture sees highest temperature ever recorded in Japan – 40.9". Japan News Review Society. 16 August 2007. http://www.japannewsreview.com/society/national/20070816page_id=1553. Retrieved 16 August 2007.
^ "Essential Info: Climate". JNTO. http://www.jnto.go.jp/eng/arrange/essential/climate.html. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
^ "Flora and Fauna: Diversity and regional uniqueness". Embassy of Japan in the USA. Archived from the original on 13 February 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070213035135/http://www.us.emb-japan.go.jp/jicc/spotflora.htm. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
^ "日本の大気汚染の歴史". Environmental Restoration and Conservation Agency. http://www.erca.go.jp/taiki/history/ko_syousyu.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ Sekiyama, Takeshi. "Japan's international cooperation for energy efficiency and conservation in Asian region". Energy Conservation Center. Archived from the original on 16 February 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080216005103/http://nice.erina.or.jp/en/pdf/C-SEKIYAMA.pdf. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "Environmental Performance Review of Japan". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/0/17/2110905.pdf. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "Automaker Rankings 2007: The Environmental Performance of Car Companies". Union of Concerned Scientists. http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_vehicles/vehicle_impacts/cars_pickups_and_suvs/automaker-rankings-2007.html. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
^ Mackenzie, Don. "Automaker Rankings 2007". Union of Concerned Scientists. pp. 4, 17–21. http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/clean_vehicles/autorank_2007report.pdf. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "Environmental Performance Index: Japan". Yale University. http://epi.yale.edu/Countries/Japan. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "World Business Council for Sustainable Development". WBCSD. http://www.wbcsd.org/plugins/DocSearch/details.asp?type=DocDet&ObjectId=MzAyNzQ. Retrieved 30 November 2009.
^ Ponsonby-Fane, Richard (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Ponsonby Memorial Society. pp. 28–29.
^ a b c "The Constitution of Japan". House of Councillors of the National Diet of Japan. 3 November 1946. http://www.sangiin.go.jp/eng/law/index.htm. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
^ Harden, Blaine (31 August 2009). "Ruling Party Is Routed In Japan". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/30/AR2009083000854.html. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "Diet votes in Kan as prime minister". Japan Times. 4 June 2010. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100604x1.html. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
^ Fackler, Martin (8 June 2010). "Focusing on Future, Premier in Japan Unveils Cabinet". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/09/world/asia/09japan.html. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ Dean, Meryll (2002). Japanese legal system : text, cases & materials (2nd ed. ed.). Cavendish. pp. 55–58. ISBN 9781859416730.
^ Kanamori, Shigenari (1 January 1999). "German influences on Japanese Pre-War Constitution and Civil Code". European Journal of Law and Economics 7 (1): 93–95. doi:10.1023/A:1008688209052.
^ "The Japanese Judicial System". Office of the Prime Minister of Japan. http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/judiciary/0620system.html. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
^ Dean, Meryll (2002). Japanese legal system : text, cases & materials (2nd ed.). Cavendish. p. 131. ISBN 9781859416730.
^ McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan. Macmillan. pp. 84–85. ISBN 0333710022.
^ Mabuchi, Masaru (May 2001). "Municipal Amalgamation in Japan". World Bank. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/WBI/Resources/wbi37175.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
^ "Japan-Australia Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/australia/joint0703.html. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
^ "Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation between Japan and India". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 22 October 2008. http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/india/pmv0810/joint_d.html. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
^ "Net Official Development Assistance in 2009". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/9/44981892.pdf. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ a b "Tokyo says it will bring troops home from Iraq". International Herald Tribune. 20 June 2006. http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/06/20/news/japan.php. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
^ "About RIMPAC". Government of Singapore. http://www.mindef.gov.sg/imindef/mindef_websites/topics/exrimpac/abt_rimpac.html. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ Schoenbaum, Thomas J., ed (2008). Peace in Northeast Asia. Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. pp. 26–29.
^ Chanlett-Avery, Emma. "North Korea's Abduction of Japanese Citizens and the Six-Party Talks". CRS Report for Congress. Federation of American Scientists. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS22845.pdf. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "The 15 countries with the highest military expenditure in 2009". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/milex/resultoutput/milex_15. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ Michael Green. "Japan Is Back: Why Tokyo's New Assertiveness Is Good for Washington". Real Clear Politics. http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2007/03/japan_is_back_why_tokyos_new_a.html. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
^ "UK backs Japan for UNSC bid". Central Chronicle. Archived from the original on 21 February 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070221044357/http://www.centralchronicle.com/20070111/1101194.htm. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
^ "Japan business lobby wants weapon export ban eased". Reuters. 13 July 2010. http://in.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-50097320100713. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 312–314. ISBN 1405123591.
^ McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan. Macmillan. pp. 18–19. ISBN 0333710022.
^ Ryan, Liam (1 January 2000). "The “Asian economic miracle” unmasked: The political economy of the reality". International Journal of Social Economics 27 (7–10): 802–815. doi:10.1108/03068290010335235.
^ Masake, Hisane (2 March 2006). "A farewell to zero". Asia Times. http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Japan/HC02Dh01.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ a b "World Economic Outlook Database; country comparisons". IMF. 6 October 2010. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2010&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C941%2C914%2C446%2C612%2C666%2C614%2C668%2C311%2C672%2C213%2C946%2C911%2C137%2C193%2C962%2C122%2C674%2C912%2C676%2C313%2C548%2C419%2C556%2C513%2C678%2C316%2C181%2C913%2C682%2C124&s=NGDPD&grp=0&a=&pr.x=27&pr.y=13. Retrieved 5 January 2011.
^ "World Factbook: Country Comparison :: GDP (purchasing power parity)". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "World Factbook: Country Comparison :: Public Debt". CIA. 2009. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2186rank.html. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
^ "Manufacturing and Construction". Statistical Handbook of Japan. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c06cont.htm. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "Has Japanese agricultural protection had its day?". Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation. Archived from the original on 2 September 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070902121216/http://www.rirdc.gov.au/pub/shortreps/anu36a.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "Executive Summary: Population Trends in Japan". Population Resource Center. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070927032804/http://www.prcdc.org/summaries/japan/japan.html. Retrieved 11 May 2009.
^ "Japan Tries to Face Up to Growing Poverty Problem". The New York Times. 21 April 2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/22/world/asia/22poverty.html?source=patrick.net. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "2008 Housing and Land Survey". Statistics Bureau. http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/NewListE.do?tid=000001028768. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
^ "Groningen Growth and Development Centre (GGDC)". GGDC. 26 January 2009. http://www.ggdc.net/. Retrieved 30 November 2009.
^ "World Motor Vehicle Production by Country". OICA. http://oica.net/wp-content/uploads/worldprod_country.PDF. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "Japan's Economy: Free at last". The Economist. 20 July 2006. http://www.economist.com/node/7193984?story_id=7193984. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
^ a b "Economic survey of Japan 2008". OECD. http://www.oecd.org/document/17/0,3343,en_2649_34111_40353553_1_1_1_1,00.html. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
^ "Activist shareholders swarm in Japan". The Economist. 28 June 2007. http://www.economist.com/node/9414552?story_id=9414552. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
^ "Why Germany's economy will outshine Japan". MoneyWeek. 28 February 2007. http://www.moneyweek.com/file/26181/why-germanys-economy-will-outshine-japan.html. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
^ "Going hybrid". The Economist. 29 November 2009. http://www.economist.com/node/10169956?story_id=10169956. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
^ "Japan". Index of Economic Freedom. http://www.heritage.org/Index/country/Japan. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ Blustein, Paul (27 January 2005). "China Passes U.S. in Trade with Japan". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A40192-2005Jan26.html. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
^ "Foreign investment in Japan soars". BBC. 29 June 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4632747.stm. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "Japan 500 2007". Financial Times. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/1b939a9a-2587-11dc-b338-000b5df10621.html. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
^ "Market Data". New York Stock Exchange. 31 January 2006. http://www.nyse.com/events/1170156816059.html. Retrieved 11 August 2007.
^ "The Forbes 2000". Forbes. http://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/18/06f2000_The-Forbes-2000_Rank.html. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ McDonald, Joe (4 December 2006). "China to spend $136 billion on R&D". BusinessWeek.
^ "Japanese Nobel Laureates". Kyoto University. 2009. http://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/profile/intro/honor/nobel.htm/. Retrieved 7 November 2009.
^ "Japanese Fields Medalists". Kyoto University. 2009. http://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/profile/intro/honor/fields.htm. Retrieved 7 November 2009.
^ "Dr. Kiyoshi Ito receives Gauss Prize". Kyoto University. 2009. http://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/profile/intro/honor/gauss.htm. Retrieved 7 November 2009.
^ "The Boom in Robot Investment Continues". United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. 17 October 2000. http://www.unece.org/press/pr2000/00stat10e.htm. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
^ "World Motor Vehicle Production by Country". OICA. 2006. Archived from the original on 7 August 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070807213925/http://www.oica.net/htdocs/statistics/tableaux2006/worldprod_country-2.pdf. Retrieved 15 January 2010.
^ "Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Homepage". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. 3 August 2006. http://www.jaxa.jp/index_e.html. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
^ "JAXA | Venus Climate Orbiter "AKATSUKI" (PLANET-C)". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. http://www.jaxa.jp/projects/sat/planet_c/index_e.html. Retrieved 4 December 2010.
^ "ISAS | Venus Meteorology AKATSUKI (PLANET-C)". Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. http://www.isas.jaxa.jp/e/enterp/missions/planet-c/index.shtml. Retrieved 4 December 2010.
^ "JAXA, Mercury Exploration Mission "BepiColombo"". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. http://www.jaxa.jp/projects/sat/bepi/index_e.html. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
^ "ISAS, Mercury Exploration MMO (BepiColombo)". Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. http://www.isas.jaxa.jp/e/enterp/missions/mmo/index.shtml. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
^ "Japan Plans Moon Base by 2030". MoonDaily. 3 August 2006. http://www.moondaily.com/reports/Japan_Plans_Moon_Base_By_2030_999.html. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
^ ""KAGUYA" selected as SELENE's nickname". http://www.jaxa.jp/countdown/f13/special/nickname_e.html. Retrieved 13 October 2007.
^ "Japan Successfully Launches Lunar Explorer "Kaguya"". Japan Corporate News Network. http://www.japancorp.net/Article.Asp?Art_ID=15429. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
^ "Japan launches first lunar probe". BBC News. 14 September 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6994272.stm. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
^ "JAXA, KAGUYA (SELENE) Image Taking of "Full Earth-Rise" by HDTV". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. http://www.jaxa.jp/press/2008/10/20081009_kaguya_e.html. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
^ Hood, Christopher P. (2006). Shinkansen – From Bullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan. Routledge. pp. 61–68. ISBN 0-415-32052-6.
^ "Energy". Statistical Handbook of Japan 2010. Statistics Bureau. http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c07cont.htm. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "Japan's Road to Deep Deficit is Paved with Public Works". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9500E3DC1031F932A35750C0A961958260. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "Transport". Statistical Handbook of Japan 2007. Statistics Bureau. http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c09cont.htm. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "Transport in Japan". International Transport Statistics Database. International Road Assessment Program. http://www.iraptranstats.net/jp. Retrieved 17 February 2009. (subscription required)
^ "Corporate Culture as Strong Diving Force for Punctuality- Another "Just in Time"". Hitachi. Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080513230217/http://www.hitachi-rail.com/rail_now/column/just_in_time/index.html. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
^ "Year to Date Passenger Traffic". Airports Council International. 11 November 2010. http://www.airports.org/cda/aci_common/display/main/aci_content07_c.jsp?zn=aci&cp=1-5-212-218-222_666_2__. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
^ Nakagawa, Dai; Matsunaka, Ryoji (2006). Transport Policy and Funding. Elsevier. p. 63. ISBN 0080448526.
^ "Port Profile". Port of Nagoya. http://www.port-of-nagoya.jp/english/about_port.htm. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "'Multicultural Japan' remains a pipe dream". Japan Times. 27 March 2007. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20070327zg.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "Japan-born Koreans live in limbo". The New York Times. 2 April 2005. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/01/news/01iht-nurse.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "An Enclave of Brazilians Is Testing Insular Japan". The New York Times. 1 November 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/02/world/asia/02japan.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "'Home' is where the heartbreak is for Japanese-Peruvians". Asia Times. 16 October 1999. http://www.atimes.com/japan-econ/AJ16Dh01.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "Registered Foreigners in Japan by Nationality". Statistics Bureau. Archived from the original on 24 August 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20050824195238/http://www.stat.go.jp/data/nenkan/pdf/y0213014.pdf. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ Fogarty, Philippa (6 June 2008). "Recognition at last for Japan's Ainu". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7437244.stm. Retrieved 7 June 2008.
^ "The Invisible Race". Time. 8 January 1973. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910511,00.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ "The World Factbook: Rank order—Life expectancy at birth". CIA. 19 December 2006. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
^ a b "Statistical Handbook of Japan: Chapter 2—Population". Statistics Bureau. http://www.stat.go.jp/English/data/handbook/c02cont.htm. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
^ a b Ogawa, Naohiro. "Demographic Trends and their implications for Japan's future". Transcript of speech delivered on 7 March 1997. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. http://www.mofa.go.jp/j_info/japan/socsec/ogawa.html. Retrieved 14 May 2006.
^ Sakanaka, Hidenori (5 October 2005). "Japan Immigration Policy Institute: Director's message". Japan Immigration Policy Institute. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070929222250/http://jipi.gr.jp/english/message.html. Retrieved 5 January 2007.
^ French, Howard (24 July 2003). "Insular Japan Needs, but Resists, Immigration". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/24/international/asia/24JAPA.html?ei=5007&en=53c7315175389e69&ex=1374379200&partner=USERLAND&pagewanted=all&position=. Retrieved 21 February 2007.
^ "Refugees in Japan". Japan Times. 12 October 2008. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/ed20081012a2.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ Strom, Stephanie (15 July 1999). "In Japan, Mired in Recession, Suicides Soar". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00E1DB173FF936A25754C0A96F958260&sec=health&spon=&scp=29&sq=suicide%20japan&st=cse. Retrieved 20 September 2008.
^ Lewis, Leo (19 June 2008). "Japan gripped by suicide epidemic". The Times. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4170649.ece. Retrieved 20 September 2008.
^ "Suicides in Japan top 30,000 for 12th consecutive year". Japan Today. 25 December 2009. http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/suicides-in-japan-top-30000-in-2009-for-12th-consecutive-year. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ Ozawa-de Silva, Chikako (December 2008). "Too Lonely to Die Alone: Internet Suicide Pacts and Existential Suffering in Japan". Cult Med Psychiatry 32 (4): 516–551. doi:10.1007/s11013-008-9108-0. PMID 18800195.
^ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (15 September 2006). "International Religious Freedom Report 2006". US Department of State. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71342.htm. Retrieved 4 December 2007.
^ Kisala, Robert (2005). Wargo, Robert. ed. The Logic Of Nothingness: A Study of Nishida Kitarō. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 0824822846.
^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. p. 72. ISBN 1405123591.
^ Clarke, Peter, ed (1993). The World's religions : understanding the living faiths. Reader's Digest. p. 208. ISBN 9780895775016.
^ Miyagawa, Shigeru. "The Japanese Language". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/jpnet/articles/JapaneseLanguage.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ Heinrich, Patrick (1 January 2004). "Language Planning and Language Ideology in the Ryūkyū Islands". Language Policy 3 (2): 153–179. doi:10.1023/B:LPOL.0000036192.53709.fc.
^ "15 families keep ancient language alive in Japan". UN. Archived from the original on 6 January 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080106062419/http://www.un.org/works/culture/japan_story.html. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
^ Lucien Ellington (1 September 2005). "Japan Digest: Japanese Education". Indiana University. Archived from the original on 27 April 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060427225148/http://www.indiana.edu/~japan/digest5.html. Retrieved 27 April 2006.
^ Ellington, Lucien (1 December 2003). "Beyond the Rhetoric: Essential Questions About Japanese Education". Foreign Policy Research Institute. http://www.fpri.org/footnotes/087.200312.ellington.japaneseeducation.html. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
^ "School Education". MEXT. http://www.mext.go.jp/english/statist/05101901/005.pdf. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
^ Rossmanith, Kate (5 February 2007). "Rethinking Japanese education". University of Sydney. http://www.usyd.edu.au/news/international/226.html?newsstoryid=1568. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
^ "TOP – 100". Global Universities Ranking. 2009. http://www.globaluniversitiesranking.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=94&Itemid=131. Retrieved 22 March 2010.
^ "QS World University Rankings 2010". QS TopUniversities. 2010. http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2010. Retrieved 15 January 2010.
^ "OECD's PISA survey shows some countries making significant gains in learning outcomes". OECD. http://www.oecd.org/document/22/0,3343,en_2649_201185_39713238_1_1_1_1,00.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ Rodwin, Victor. "Health Care in Japan". New York University. http://www.nyu.edu/projects/rodwin/lessons.html. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
^ "Health Insurance: General Characteristics". National Institute of Population and Social Security Research. http://www.ipss.go.jp/s-info/e/Jasos/Health.html. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
^ "A History of Manga". NMP International. http://www.dnp.co.jp/museum/nmp/nmp_i/articles/manga/manga1.html. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
^ Herman, Leonard; Horwitz, Jer; Kent, Steve; Miller, Skyler. "The History of Video Games". Gamespot. http://uk.gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/hov/index.html. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
^ Malm, William P. (2000). Traditional Japanese music and musical instruments (New ed.). Kodansha International. pp. 31–45. ISBN 9784770023957.
^ Campion, Chris (22 August 2005). "J-Pop History". The Observer. http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2005/aug/21/popandrock3. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
^ Martinez, D.P., ed (1998). The worlds of Japanese popular culture: gender, shifting boundaries and global cultures (Repr. ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 76. ISBN 9780521637299.
^ "Asian Studies Conference, Japan (2000)". Meiji Gakuin University. http://www.meijigakuin.ac.jp/~ascj/2000/200015.htm. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
^ a b c "Windows on Asia—Literature : Antiquity to Middle Ages: Recent Past". Michigan State University. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071011065654/http://isp.msu.edu/AsianStudies/wbwoa/eastasia/Japan/literature.html. Retrieved 28 December 2007.
^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 126–127. ISBN 1405123591.
^ Royall, Tyler, ed (2003). The Tale of Genji. Penguin Classics. pp. i–ii, xii. ISBN 014243714X.
^ "Sumo: East and West". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/sumoeastandwest/sumo.html. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
^ "Culture and Daily Life". Embassy of Japan in the UK. Archived from the original on 17 March 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070317192109/http://www.uk.emb-japan.go.jp/en/facts/culture_dailylife.html#sports. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
^ "Olympic History in Japan". Japanese Olympic Committee. http://www.joc.or.jp/english/historyjapan/history_japan_bid.html. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ Nagata, Yoichi; Holway, John B. (1995). "Japanese Baseball". In Palmer, Pete. Total Baseball (4th ed.). Viking Press. p. 547.
^ Posnanski, Joe. "There has never been a player like Ichiro, and there likely never will". Sports Illustrated. http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2010/writers/joe_posnanski/03/25/unique.ichiro/index.html. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ Wallace, Bruce (4 July 2007). "Home run king and gentleman". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2007/jul/04/sports/sp-oh4. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "Soccer as a Popular Sport: Putting Down Roots in Japan". The Japan Forum. http://www.tjf.or.jp/takarabako/PDF/TB09_JCN.pdf. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
^ "Previous FIFA World Cups". FIFA. http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/edition=4395/index.html. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "Japan's best for AFC Asian Cup". Asian Football Confederation. http://www.the-afc.com/en/afc-asian-cup-news/31044-japans-best-for-afc-asian-cup. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ Varcoe, Fred. "Japanese Golf Gets Friendly". Metropolis. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070926215517/http://metropolis.co.jp/tokyo/604/sports.asp. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
^ Clarke, Len. "Japanese Omnibus: Sports". Metropolis. Archived from the original on September 26, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070926215524/http://metropolis.co.jp/tokyo/623/sports.asp. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
^ "Birth of Twin Ring Motegi". Honda. http://world.honda.com/history/challenge/1997twinringmotegi/. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
Further reading
De Mente, The Japanese Have a Word For It, McGraw-Hill, 1997 (ISBN 0-8442-8316-9)
Flath, The Japanese Economy, Oxford University Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-19-877503-2)
Henshall, A History of Japan, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 (ISBN 0-312-23370-1)
Ikegami, Bonds Of Civility: Aesthetic Networks And The Political Origins Of Japanese Culture, Cambridge University Press, 2005 (ISBN 0-521-60115-0)
Ito et al., Reviving Japan's Economy: Problems and Prescriptions, MIT Press, 2005 (ISBN 0-262-09040-6)
Iwabuchi, Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism, Duke University Press, 2002 (ISBN 0-8223-2891-7)
Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, Belknap, 2000 (ISBN 0-674-00334-9)
Johnson, Japan: Who Governs?, W.W. Norton & Company, 1996 (ISBN 0-393-31450-2)
Kato et al., A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'Yoshu to Modern Times, Japan Library, 1997 (ISBN 1-873410-48-4)
Macwilliams, Japanese Visual Culture: Explorations in the World of Manga and Anime, M.E. Sharpe, 2007 (ISBN 0-7656-1602-5)
McDonald, Reading a Japanese Film: Cinema in Context, University of Hawaii Press, 2005 (ISBN 0-8248-2993-X)
Ono et al., Shinto: The Kami Way, Tuttle Publishing, 2004 (ISBN 0-8048-3557-8)
Reischauer, Japan: The Story of a Nation, McGraw-Hill, 1989 (ISBN 0-07-557074-2)
Samuels, Securing Japan: Tokyo's Grand Strategy and the Future of East Asia, Cornell University Press, 2008 (ISBN 0-8014-7490-6)
Silverberg, Erotic Grotesque Nonsense: The Mass Culture of Japanese Modern Times, University of California Press, 2007 (ISBN 0-520-22273-3)
Shinoda, Koizumi Diplomacy: Japan’s Kantei Approach to Foreign and Defense Affairs, University of Washington Press, 2007 (ISBN 0-295-98699-9)
Stevens, Japanese Popular Music: Culture, Authenticity and Power, Routledge, 2007 (ISBN 0-415-38057-X)
Sugimoto et al., An Introduction to Japanese Society, Cambridge University Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-521-52925-5)
Varley, Japanese Culture, University of Hawaii Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-8248-2152-1)
External links
Find more about Japan on Wikipedia's sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary

Images and media from Commons

Learning resources from Wikiversity

News stories from Wikinews

Quotations from Wikiquote

Source texts from Wikisource

Textbooks from Wikibooks

Government
Kantei.go.jp, official prime ministerial and cabinet site
Kunaicho.go.jp, official site of the Imperial family.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, papers on Japan's foreign policy, education programs, culture and life.
National Diet Library
Shugi-in.go.jp, official site of the House of Representatives
News media
Asahi Shimbun
Kyodo News
NHK Online
The Japan Times
Yomiuri Shimbun (English)
Tourism
Japan National Tourist Organization
Japan travel guide from Wikitravel
General information
Japan from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Japan at the Open Directory Project
Energy Profile for Japan from the US Energy Information Administration
Works by Government of Japan at Project Gutenberg containing the 1889 and 1946 Constitutions
Japan: Land of the Rising Sun – slideshow by Life magazine